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PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 


TREVES. 


VOLUME  ONE  READY  IN  MAY. 

A  Treatise  on  Hygiene. 

In  Two  Volumes.    8vo. 

EDITED   BY 

THOMAS  STEVENSON,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P., 

LECTURER  ON  CHEMISTRY  AND  ON  MEDICAL  JURISPRUDENCE  AT  GUY'S  HOSPITAL; 

OFFICIAL  ANALYST  TO  THE  HOME  OFFICE; 

AND 

SHIRLEY  F.  MURPHY, 

MEDICAL  OFFICER  OF  HEALTH  TO  THE  COUNTY  OF  LONDON. 

Vol.  I.,  about  1020pp.,  which  will  be  published  in  May,  contains: 

Air.     By  J.  Lane  Notter,  M.A.,  IVLD.,  Professor  of  Military  Hygiene  at  the  Army  Medi- 
cal School,  Netley. 
Warming  and   Ventilation.     By  W.  N.  Shaw,  F.R.S.,  Lecturer  on  Experimental 

Physics  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.     With  53  Illustrations. 
Meteorology.     By  G.  J.  Symons,  F.R.S.,  Secretary  of  the  Royal  Meteorological  Society. 

With  27  Illustrations. 
Influence  of  Clima,to  on   Health.     By  C.  Theodore  Williams,  M.A.,  M.D., 

F.R.C.P.     With  Two  Illustrations. 
Water.     By  Thomas  Stevenson,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P.    With  Three  Illustrations. 
The  Influence  of  Soil  on  Health.     By  S.  Monckton  Copeman,  M.A.,  M.D.,  D.P.H., 

Assistant  Lecturer  on  Physiology  at  St.  Thomas's  Hospital.     With  Four  Lithographic 

Plates. 
Food.     By  Sidney  Martin,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P.,  Assistant  Physician  to  University  College 

Hospital.     With  21  Illustrations. 
The  Inspection  of  Moat.     By  E.  W.  Hope,  M.D.,  D.Sc,  Assistant  Medical  Officer  of 

Health;   Lecturer  on  Public  Health,  University  College,  Liverpool. 
Clothing.     By  Geo.  Vivian  Poore,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P.,  Physician  to  University  College 

Hospital.     With  Lithographic  Plate. 
Physical  Education      By  Frederick  Treves,  F.R.C.S.,  Surgeon  to  the  London  Hos- 
pital. 
Baths.     By  W.  Hale  White,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P.,  Physician  to  Guy's  Hospital. 
The  Dwelling.     By  P.  Gordon  Smith,  F.R.I.B.A.,  and  Keith  D.  Young,  F.R.I.B.A. 

With  60  Illustrations. 
Hospital  Hygiene.     By  H.  G.  Howse,  M.S.,  Surgeon  to  Guy's  Hospital. 
The  Disposal  of  Refuse.     By  W.  H.  Corfield,  M.A.,  M.D.,  and  Louis  C.  Parkes, 

M.D.,  D.P.H.     With  24  Illustrations. 
Offensive  Businesses.     By  T.  W.  Hime,  M.D.,  Medical  Officer  of  Health  for  Bradford. 
Slaughterhouses.     By  E.  W.  Hope,  M.D.,  D.Sc,  Assistant  Medical  Officer  of  Health, 

Liverpool. 

The  "Writers  in  Vol.  II.,  which  will  appear  in  the  Summer,  are: 

Dr.  E.  KLEIN,  F.R.S. — The  Pathology  and  Etiology  of  Infectious  Diseases. 
With  42  Plates. 

Dr.  T.  W.  THOMPSON. — The  Natural  History  and  Prevention  of  Infec- 
tious Diseases. 

Dr.  McVAIL. — Vaccination.     Illustrated. 

Dr.  H.  L'.  ARMSTRONG.— Ship  Hygiene.     Illustrated. 

Dr.  J.  L.  NOTTER. — Military  Hygiene.     Illustrated. 

Sir  T.  SPENCER  WELLS,  Bart.— Disposal  of  the  Dead. 

Dr.  ARTHUR  RANSOM E.— Vital  Statistics.     Illustrated. 

Dr.  ALFRED  ASHBY.— Duties  of  the  Medical  Officer  of  Health. 

Mr.  C.  N.  DALTON—  Sanitary  Law. 


Philadelphia:  P.  BLAKISTON,  SON  &  CO.,  1012  Walnut  Street. 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


BEING 


AN  ARTICLE  CONTRIBUTED 


TO  AN 


ENCYCLOPEDIC  WORK  ON  HYGIENE 


BY 

FREDERICK  TREVES,  F.R.C.S., 

SURGEON  TO   AND   LECTURER   ON  ANATOMY   AT   THE   LONDON   HOSPITAL-.    MEMBER   OF  THE 
BOARD   OF   EXAMINERS    OF   THE    ROYAL   COLLEGE   OF   SURGEONS. 


Printed  from  the  advance  sheets  of  "A   Treatise  on  //v^iene,"  by  varioui  authors. 

See  opposite  /■  ■ 


I'HII  AMI  I'll!  \  : 

P.    BLAKIST*  IN,   s<  >\    &    C(  >.. 

ioia  WALNU1    -  i  i ;  i  i   i  . 
1899. 


Copyright,  1892, 

By  P.  BLAKISTON,  SON  &  CO., 

PHILADELPHIA. 


PUBLISHER'S   PREFACE. 


The  subject  of  Physical  Education  as  a  Hygienic  measure  has  recently 
attracted  so  much  attention  from  School  Boards,  the  Medical  Profession,  and 
Sanitarians  generally,  that  it  now  ranks  in  importance  with  the  various 
branches  of  study  pursued  in  our  public  schools  and  colleges.  To  the 
average  city  man  or  woman  of  sedentary  occupation,  physical  exercise  is 
of  quite  as  much  consequence  as  it  is  to  school  children  and  college  students. 
It  is  however  often  taken  up  unwisely  and  to  the  lasting  harm  of  those  who  in 
ignorance  attempt  methods  that  are  unsuited  to  their  physical  condition. 

It  has  therefore  been  thought  advisable  to  publish  from  the  advance  sheets 
of  "A  Treatise  on  Hygiene"  this  paper  by  one  of  the  best  known  medical 
writers  of  the  day,  that  it  might  be  within  the  reach  of  those  who  would  not 
perhaps  care  to  purchase  the  larger  work  in  which  it  will  be  included. 

(v) 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Introductory 9 

The  General  Effects  of  Exercise 14 

I.  The   Effects  of  Exercise  upon  the  Development  and  Proportions  of  the 

Body •    .    .  14 

II.  The  Effect  of  Exercise  upon  the  Muscular  and  Nervous  Systems 26 

III.  The  Effect  of  Exercise  upon  the  Tissues  and  Organs  generally 29 

IV.  The  Effect  of  Exercise  upon  Personal  Comeliness  and  Comfort 32 

V.  The  Mental  and  Moral  Effects  of  Exercise 36 

Fatigue 38 

I.  Breathlessness 38 

II.  Muscular  Fatigue 43 


III.   Muscular  Stiffness 


45 


IV.   General  Fatigue 46 

rs  o»  Excessive  <>r  Unsuitable  Exercise 48 


The  I  [eart  and  Blood-\ 


50 


Aneurysm c\ 


■  V<  ins 


52 

The  Fungs c; 

and  Musclei 

I [ernia  


Train 


53 

54 


55 


57 

Walking cy 

Running 58 

Jumping 60 

Skating 61 

Riding 61 

Swimming 63 

Fencing 64 

65 

(  v:i  ) 


viii  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Boating 66 

Rowing  and  Sculling 69 

The  Muscles  Involved 71 

The  Adaptabilities  of  Boating 72 

Canoeing 73 

Cycling 75 

Cycling  as  an  Exercise 78 

Cycling  for  Ladies  and  Girls 84 

Gymnastics  and  Calisthenics 86 

Gymnastic  Apparatus 94 

Home  Gymnasia 102 

Outdoor  Games 103 

The  Elements  of  Physical  Education 105 

Forms  of  Exercise 109 

I.  Exercises  of  Strength 109 

II.  Exercises  of  Speed  or  of  Rapid  Movement no 

III.  Exercises  of  Endurance no 

IV.  Exercises  of  Skill 1 10 

V.  Exercises  which  Develop  the  Chest Ill 

The  Selection  of  Exercises  According  to  Individual  Needs 112 

Children 112 

Girls  and  Women 1 12 

Lads 115 

Adults 115 

The  Middle-aged  and  Elderly 115 


INTRODUCTORY. 

Writers  are  not  yet  weary  of  enlarging  upon  the  marvels  of  civilization, 
upon  the  intellectual  development  of  the  human  race,  upon  the  triumphs  of 
human  ingenuity,  and  the  might  and  magnificence  of  human  culture.  He 
ha?,  indeed,  much  to  marvel  at  who  measures  the  gulf  which  separates  the 
polished  citizen  of  the  world  from  the  half-naked  and  quite  savage  barbarian. 
The  inventive  genius  of  the  modern,  the  high  development  of  each  craft  and 
industry  which  he  has  cultivated,  the  skill  of  the  nineteenth-century  artisan, 
the  general  intellectual  condition  of  the  masses  in  the  great  centres  of  civili- 
zation, are  all  features  of  attraction  for  those  who  are  unceasing  in  the  glorifi- 
cation of  the  race.  The  great  elements  in  human  progress  afford,  indeed, 
proper  material  for  admiration.  There  is  no  one  but  would  admit  that  the 
advantages  of  the  civilized  man  over  the  savage  are  such  as  to  make  reason- 
able comparisons  scarcely  possible  ;  but  there  follows  upon  this  the  question 
as  to  whether  the  so-called  blessings  of  civilization  represent  an  unmixed 
good.  The  intellectual  victory  has  been  great,  but  it  has  nut  been  effected 
without  cost.  We  have  in  our  midst  the  inventor,  the  man  of  genius,  the 
handicraftsman,  but  we  have  also  the  weakling,  the  delicate,  the  misshapen, 
and  that  most  modern  product  of  all,  the  mannikin  of  the  city.  This  pale, 
wizened,  undersized  creature  represents  no  little  sacrifice  ;  he  is  a  product  of 
civilization,  an  unintentional  manifestation,  but  a  characteristic  one. 

If  one  watches  the  stream  of  men,  1  -ill.,  which  pours  out  at  the 

close  of  day  from  a  great  city  factory,  the  question  may  well  be  asked  :   Are 

these  superior  to  the  savage  in  all  things,  and  are  there  no  points  m  which  the 

barbari  in  could  <  (aim  some  advantage  over  his  modern  descendant? 

The   savage  N  TSeman  who  first    sailed  the   northern  seas  knew  little  of  an 

and  e,  DUt    lie   had    gre  and  a   stout    heart    and    mighty 

tnd  exhau  rength,  and  was  a  Bt  t  might  be  assumed — 

to  many  of  tin-  aches  and    pains  ami    petty  illnesses  which  the  modern   town- 

dwellei   o  i  natural  inrii 

In  the  face  of  a  marvellous  so,  i,,i,  moral  and  intellectual  development,  we 
arc  apt  to  at  of  the  fact  that  man  is  an  animal,  that  lie  cannot  yet  <l  » 


io  PHYSICAL   EDUCATION. 

without  a  body,  and  that  a  strong  receptacle  fcr  the  mind  is  better  than  a 
frail  one. 

The  higher  type  of  savage  was  perfect  in  form,  lithe  in  movement,  keen  of 
vision  and  strong  cf  arm.  He  felt  in  his  veins  the  glow  of  life,  the  joy  of 
mere  vigor  thrilled  his  muscles,  the  instincts  of  mere  health  dignified  his 
movements.  If  he  pursued  physical  culture  to  an  exclusive  degree,  it  is  pos- 
sible that  his  civilized  brother  may  carry  intellectual  finish  to  an  equal  extreme. 

There  is  evidence  to  show  that  an  exclusive  development  of  what  are  quite 
properly  termed  the  higher  faculties  of  man  is  not  of  unmixed  advantage. 
Progress  is  so  rapid,  and  the  movements  of  daily  life  are  so  exacting,  that 
there  is  a  tendency  to  overlook  the  fact  that  man  cannot  live  by  intellectual 
bread  alone.  The  young  lad  is  taught  to  read  as  soon  as  he  can  lisp,  and  to 
write  as  soon  as  he  can  grasp  a  pen.  At  school  he  is  forced  and  fostered  like  a 
hot-house  plant,  and  when  he  is  old  enough  to  take  his  place  in  the  race  in  life 
he  at  once  feels  the  fever  of  competition  and  the  strain  of  incessant  endeavor. 

It  is,  however,  becoming  obvious  that  one  great  element  of  success  in  life  is 
bodily  strength  ;  and  that  he  who  has  every  mental  requirement  and  the  finest 
intellectual  finish  may  find  that  he  still  lacks  the  one  thing  needed.  Sound 
physical  health  enables  a  man  to  work  with  vigor  and  freshness,  to  pass  un- 
harmed through  periods  of  unusual  pressure,  to  withstand  the  evils  of  worry, 
to  preserve  a  clearness  and  acuteness  of  mind  when  others  are  worn  and  fret- 
ful and  uncertain,  and  to  still  press  forward  when  others  have  fallen  in  the  race. 

He  will  do  well  who  still  retains  in  the  midst  of  his  city  life  some  of  the 
qualities  of  the  men  of  the  plain.  He  will  find  that  muscular  strength  and 
good  lungs  are  not  without  value,  even  though  he  be  no  longer  dependent 
upon  the  hunter's  skill  for  his  daily  meal.  The  attributes  of  the  trapper  and 
the  seaman  are  attributes  which  cannot  be  without  service,  even  in  the  murk- 
iest life  in  the  wilderness  of  a  great  city. 

It  is  now  more  or  less  clearly  recognized  that  no  skill,  no  learning,  no  in- 
tellectual greatness,  can  carry  with  it  its  fullest  influence  without  a  certain 
element  of  physical  capacity  in  the  individual. 

The  unduly  diligent  student  who  burns  the  midnight  oil,  who  cannot  tear 
himself  away  from  his  books,  who  moves  in  a  world  in  which  the  only  sun- 
shine is  that  of  learning,  and  the  only  breeze  is  that  which  blows  from  the 
erudition  of  the  past,  is  often  a  miserable  object  enough  as  a  human  being. 
His  face  is  wan,  his  arms  are  feeble,  his  eyes  are  dim,  he  lives  in  an  atmo- 
sphere of  little  ailments,  and  he  has  few  pleasures  other  than  the  joys  of  the 


IX  TR  OD  UCTOR  Y.  1 1 

bookworm.  Such  a  man  would  make  no  less  progress  in  the  present,  and 
would  effect  no  less  influence  in  the  future,  if  he  would  devote  some  leisure  to 
the  cultivation  of  his  body.  A  clear  eye,  a  wiry  limb,  and  a  ruddy  cheek,  are 
not  inconsistent  with  the  greatest  intellectual  development ;  while  on  the 
other  hand  there  are  many  poor  lads  who  have  been  crammed  and  cultivated 
until  they  are  mere  learned  invalids.  It  may  well  be  asked  of  their  learn- 
ing, "What  will  they  do  with  it?"  Many  a  "city  man "  can  have  but  little 
knowledge  of  living,  however  much  he  may  know  of  "life."  His  hurried 
hours  of  work  are  followed  by  a  period  of  dulled  rest.  He  lives  in  the  maze 
caused  by  the  rush  of  passing  events,  he  knows  little  of  the  joys  of  the  world 
as  the  barbarian  knows  them,  and  his  journey  through  life  is  but  at  a  halting 
and  creaking  pace.  He  remains  a  partly  developed  creature  who  has  never 
attained  to  the  full  stature  of  a  man. 

Montaigne  well  says,  in  speaking  of  a  man  as  he  should  be,  "  I  would  have 
the  disposition  of  his  limbs  formed  at  the  same  time  with  his  mind.  Tis  not  a 
soul,  'tis  not  a  body  we  are  training,  but  a  man,  and  we  must  not  divide  him." 

In  certain  directions  the  importance  of  simple  physical  health  and  strength 
cannot  well  be  exaggerated.  The  part  these  have  played  in  the  history  of  the 
British  race  has  been  magnificent  enough.     The  gl  !  English  enterprise, 

the  daring  and  hardihood  of  the  British  seaman,  the  unconquerable  pluck  of 
the  English  soldier,  have  taken  no  little  share  in  forming  the  greatness  of  the 
British  nation.     The  love  of  sport  among  !  uglish,  the  delight  in  manly 

games  and  outdoor  exercises,  the  contempt  for  what  is  effeminate  and  fei 
are  outcomes  of  a  vigorous  health  and  a  sturdy  growth. 

re  is  no  need  to  modify  the  fact  that  the  position  of  (Ire. it  Britain 
among  European  nations  is  due  in  no  small  extent  to  qualifications  which 
have  been  the  gl  tplorer  may  have  profound 

knowledge  and  a  preternatural  judgment,  but  they  avail  but  little  if  he  be  not 

possessed  of   men-   rude  health  and   strength.     The   main    pride  of  the  early 

navigator  was  his  reck  nd  his  sturdy  endurance.    The 

commander  would  have  proved  a  man  of  straw  had  he  not  at  his  call  men  who 
shirked  no  h  irdship  and  who  felt  no  fear. 

It  may  doI  1"  .1  ai  knowledgment,  but  it  is  none  th<  true  that 

the  ;  I  nglish  p<  1  in  no  lit  e  upon  tb 

very  humble  qualities  whii  h  □  good  animal." 

m  instinct  which  impels  the  human  being  to  seek  health  in  mua- 
cul.n  and  pleasure  in  physical  exertion.     Tin  •  the 


12  PHYSICAL   EDUCATION. 

child  is  an  expression  of  this.  It  is  often  said  of  a  child  that  he  or  she  is 
never  still.  It  is  an  excellent  feature.  It  is  as  unreasonable  to  expect  a  young 
lad  to  keep  quiet  as  to  expect  him  not  to  cough  when  he  has  a  cold.  The 
infant  jumps  and  kicks  and  crows ;  the  child  shows  its  natural  promptings  by 
incessant  restlessness.  The  schoolboy,  if  he  be  vigorous  and  healthy,  appears 
to  have  acquired  the  art  of  perpetual  movement.  The  mad  rush  of  a  crowd 
of  schoolboys  from  the  schoolroom  the  moment  they  are  free  is  characteristic 
enough  and  pleasant  to  witness.  The  limbs  and  muscles  which  have  been  so 
long  still  feel  the  need  of  movement  as  a  half-suffocated  man  feels  the  need  of 
air.  The  boy  who  is  the  first  to  reach  the  open  air  beyond  the  school-house 
door  has  probably  not  an  evil  future  before  him  ;  he  has  at  least  made  a  good 
beginning.  He,  on  the  other  hand,  who  crawls  out  last,  who  feels  no  irresist- 
ible impulse  to  jump  and  shout,  is  in  some  way  abnormal ;  he  is  ill  in  health 
or  imperfect  in  construction.  He  may  prove  an  excellent  scholar,  but  the 
terrible  earnestness  of  the  race  of  life  is  not  best  met  by  mere  scholarship. 

Throughout  life  there  exists  in  all  healthly  bodies  this  natural  craving  for 
exercise,  and  a  man  may  consider  that  he  has  reached  an  unfortunate  period 
in  his  career  when  he  has  ceased  to  feel  that  impulse. 

Muscles  can  grow  only  by  exercise  and  by  the  simple  expedient  of  using 
them.  The  disused  muscle  wastes,  and  becomes  fatty  and  anaemic.  Mus- 
cular tissue  occupies  nearly  every  part  of  the  body,  from  so  delicate  a  piece 
of  mechanism  as  the  eye  to  so  simple  a  structure  as  the  biceps  humeri.  Ex- 
ercise implies  not  merely  the  development  of  the  muscles  of  the  limbs,  it  im- 
plies also  the  healthy  use  of  the  muscle  of  the  heart,  of  the  muscles  of  respi- 
ration, of  the  muscular  tissue  of  the  arteries,  and  of  the  muscular  elements  of 
all  parts  capable  of  movement.  Such  movement  carries  with  it  of  necessity 
an  activity  in  the  nervous  system,  an  activity  in  the  secreting  organs  and  in 
the  organs  of  excretion. 

Movement,  indeed,  within  proper  bounds,  is  essential  to  the  full  develop- 
ment and  perfect  maintenance  of  the  health  of  the  body.  The  body  is  a 
machine  with  the  peculiar  attribute  that  the  more  it  is  used,  within  reasonable 
limits,  the  stronger  and  more  capable  it  becomes.  It  gathers  strength  by 
movement,  and  that  strength  is  to  be  gauged,  not  by  mere  muscular  force, 
but  by  the  perfect  functional  condition  of  every  part  and  of  every  organ. 

Physical  Education  involves  exercise  and  movement.  We  know  of  no 
other  means  of  developing  any  portion  of  the  organism,  provided  that  the 
supply  of  food  and  of  air  be  sufficient.     Exercise  means  growth,  functional 


INTRODUCTOi  13 

r,  and  the  maintenance  of  a  high  standard  of  organic  life.     Undue  1 
implies  decay,  feebleness,  and  a  debased  standard  of  functional  value.     Abso- 
lute rest  is  found  only  in  death. 

Of  artificial  means  of  attaining  physical  perfection  there  are  none.  Every 
structure  and  tissue  must  be  duly  and  accurately  exercised  and  kept  in  proper 
movement ;  and  this  applies  as  well  to  the  ciliary  muscle  of  the  eye  as  it  does 
to  the  great  flexors  of  the  leg,  as  well  to  the  peptic  glands  of  the  stomach  as 
to  the  cells  of  the  cortex  of  the  brain.  The  body  is  like  a  busy  town ;  so 
long  as  there  is  activity  within  its  walls,  and  so  long  as  every  nook  and  corner 
is  alive  with  the  best  energies  of  those  who  dwell  therein,  things  fare  well ;  but 
when  one  section  flags,  when  inactivity  falls  upon  this  quarter  or  upon  that, 
there  comes  some  retrogression,  some  halting  in  a  progress  which  had  hitherto 
been  even  and  energetic.  If  the  intellect  is  to  be  cultivated,  the  brain  must 
be  exercised.  He  who  wishes  to  acquire  the  far  vision  of  the  seaman  must 
use  his  eyes  like  a  seaman,  and  he  who  would  develop  the  hunter's  keenness 
of  hearing  and  powers  of  endurance  must  lead  the  hunter's  life. 

To  learn  how  to  rightly  exercise  every  part  and  organ  of  the  body,  and 
how  to  effect  this  without  undue  effort  or  injurious  strain,  is  to  discover  the 
elixir  of  life  and  such  a  philosopher's  stone  as  will  render  the  short  tenure  of 
human  life  as  free  from  bodily  troubles  as  the  art  of  man  can  make  it. 

It  is  no  longer  possible  to  say,  as  Herbert  Spencer  did  some  twenty 
.  that  the  inhabitants  of  this  country  take  an  interest  in  the  rearing  of  the 
offspring  of  all  creatures  except  themselves.    Civilization  has  nol  yel  greatly 
impaired  tin-  unconquerable  love  of  sport  and  the  passion  for  movement  and 
\ich  appear  to  be  the  heritage  of  the  British  race.     There 
is  some  evidence  to  show  tint,  taking  averages,  we  have  a  't  dimini 
either  in  height  or  in  girth.    There  is  evidence  of  deterioration  among  the 
rer  inhabitants  of  gr  it   cities,  but  among  the  n  red  <lass,.>  ii 

would  a]  it  no  change  has  taken  place  which   in  1  distinct 

1  award   tendency.    Within    1  there   has   been  a  remarkable 

revival  of  interest  in  sports,  games  and  athletii    exercises  of  all  kinds.     It 
not  until  1   7;  that  tin-  English  Channel  was  crossed  by  1  swimmer. 

far  as  it  is  known,  it  w  is  not  until  the  year  1^77  that  a  human  being  had 
leapt  from   the  ground,  without  BTtifil  i  il  aid,  to  the  height  ^\    '•  feet  2  inches. 
A  man   can  now   jump  feet    in  width,  a  mile  has  been   run   in 

than    l1  ■    minute   .  and  600  miles  hue  been  walked  ill  one  w 

It  is  quite  obvious  that  the  term   Physical   Education  must  includ< 


i4  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

regulation  of  the  functions  and  movements  of  the  entire  body.  With  such  as 
concern  the  supply  cf  suitable  food  and  wholesome  air,  and  the  observation 
of  what  are  known  as  simple  hygienic  conditions,  the  present  paper  has  no 
concern. 

It  is  necessary  here  to  deal  only  with  that  most  conspicuous  factor  in 
physical  culture  which  concerns  the  due  and  proportionate  exercise  of  the 
muscles  of  the  body. 

In  the  following  article  we  shall  first  consider  the  general  effects  of  exercise, 
including  the  subjects  of  fatigue,  overwork,  and  want  of  exercise,  and 
secondly  the  effects  of  specific  exercises. 

THE  GENERAL  EFFECTS  OF  EXERCISE. 

r.  The  Effect  of  Exercise  upon  the  Development  and 
Proportions  of  the  Body. 

Exercise,  as  here  understood,  may  be  represented  by  such  natural,  sys- 
tematic, and  well-regulated  exercises  as  enter  into  the  life  of  every  healthy 
public  schoolboy,  together  with  such  special  gymnastics  which  may  be  con- 
sidered to  be  necessary  in  particular  cases.  It  must  be  understood  that  the 
object  of  exercise — as  here  intended — is  not  to  develop  athletes,  acrobats,  and 
phenomenally  strong  men,  but  to  encourage  and  maintain  the  highest  and 
most  equable  development  of  the  body. 

The  secret  of  the  size  and  proportions  of  the  future  man  lies  buried  in  the 
ovum  from  which  the  individual  is  developed.  It  may  be  said,  indeed,  that 
there  are  two  proportions  possible  in  every  human  body — first,  that  which  is 
congenital,  inherited,  and  predetermined  ;  and,  secondly,  such  an  increase  or 
modification  of  these  proportions  as  may  be  effected  by  proper  exercise. 

The  child  of  short  and  stunted  parents  will  probably  also  be  short  and 
stunted,  and  may  remain  so  in  spite  of  an  elaborate  physical  training.  An 
infant  Bushman,  transported  suddenly  to  a  cotter's  home  in  Scotland,  could 
never  be  expected  to  attain  the  proportions  of  the  young  Highlanders  with 
whom  his  lot  had  been  cast.  In  estimating  the  effect  of  exercise  and  in 
speculating  upon  its  possible  powers  in  this  direction,  a  constant  reference 
must  be  made  to  those  inherited  factors  which  are  quite  beyond  control. 
Exercise  cannot  make  a  man  a  giant,  nor  can  it  with  any  certainty  develop  a 
modern  Hercules.  It  can,  however,  influence  the  growth  and  structural  per- 
fection of  the  body  in  a  manner  which  is  definite  and  to  some  extent  re- 
markable. 


GENERAL   EFFECTS   OF  EXERCISE.  15 

Exercise  increases  the  size  of  a  muscle,  the  proportions  of  its  tendon,  and 
the  power  it  can  command.  After  undue  rest,  a  muscle  becomes  thin,  soft, 
wasted,  and  feeble.  The  stronger  the  muscles,  the  finer  and  denser  are  the 
aponeuroses  with  which  they  are  connected,  and  the  stouter  are  the  fasciae 
which  hold  them  in  position.  Muscles  act  upon  articulations.  The  duly  ex- 
ercised joint  has  a  good  covering  of  cartilage,  powerful  ligaments,  and  well- 
developed  bony  parts.  The  joint  which  has  long  been  kept  at  rest  has  wasted 
ligaments,  a  thinned  cartilage,  and  bones  of  smaller  proportions.  It  becomes, 
moreover,  hyperaesthetic  from  disuse,  and  the  tissues  around  are  found  to  be 
flabby  and  anaemic.  Within  certain  somewhat  narrow  limits,  the  mechanical 
possibilities  of  a  joint  can  be  much  extended  by  exercise. 

Muscular  strength,  moreover,  influences  the  size  of  the  bones  upon  which 
the  muscles  act.  The  skeleton  of  a  feeble  individual  compares  in  a  very 
marked  manner  with  the  skeleton  of  a  muscular  person  of  the  same  height 
and  the  same  age.  The  bone  of  the  muscular  individual  is  stronger,  firmer, 
and  denser  ;  it  is  actually  larger,  and  the  so-called  muscular  surfaces  and 
ridges  are  more  conspicuously  marked. 

'■-  ise  induces  a  more  vigorous  respiration,  and  under  increased  breath- 
ing efforts  the  lung  capacity  is  increased  and  the  size  of  the  thorax  is  aug- 
mented. Exercise,  moreover,  accelerates  the  blood  circulation,  and  it  is 
needless  to  point  out  the  effect  an  increased  blood  supply  has  upon  the  size 
and  development  of  the  tissues  concerned. 

1.  The  Development  of  the  Body. — Before  considering  the  special  effects  of 
exercise  upon  the  growth  of  the  body,  it  is  necessary  to  take  Dote  of  what 
may  be  termed  the  average  measurements  of  the  human  organism. 

The  principal  facts  with  regard  t.>  the  growth  of  the  body,  its  weight  and 
height  at  various  periods  of  life,  its  comparative  proportions  in  males  and 
females,  and  other  features  concerned  in  anthropometry,  are  briefly  .set  forth 
in  the  following  t  ibles. 

principal  tables  are  derived   from   Mr.  Charles  Roberts' "  Manual  of 
Anthropometry,"  and  to  this  admirable  and  classical  work  the  reader  1 
ferred  for  more  extensive  del  tils.    Much  use  h  is  been  made  also  of  the  report 
of  the  Anthropometrii  Committee  of  the  British  Association,  1  rhis 

report  was  drawn  up  by  Mr.  Roberts  and  sir  R.  \v.  Rawson,  and  has  been 
publi  in  appendix  to  Mr.  Roberts'  "Manual."    Th< 

vide  the  most  precise  data  upon  anthropomet]  •  is 

(  "m  .rued,  which  W 


PHYSICAL   EDUCATION. 


It  may  in  the  first  place  be  well  to  tabulate  the  periods  at  which  the  various 
parts  of  the  skeleton  are  completed,  so  far  as  the  facts  of  osteology  guide  us. 

The  Spine       ~\ 

The  Pelvis >  The  25th  year. 

The  Shoulder  Girdle J 

The  Upper  Limb The  20th  year. 

{The  Femur  the  20th  year. 
The  Tibia  the  2 2d  year. 
The  Fibula  the  24th  year. 

Table  I. — Showing  the  average  stature  {without  shoes)  and  the  average  weight  {including 
clothes)  at  all  ages  of  the  general  population  of  Great  Britain.  {All  classes.  Town 
and  country?)  Number  of  observations  on  which  the  averages  are  founded.  Stature  : 
Males,  37,574.  Females,  4,616.  Weight:  Males,  33,043.  Females,  4,685.  (From  the 
Report  of  the  Anthropometric  Committee,  1883.) 


Males. 

Fem 

ALES. 

Age  last 
birthday. 

Average  1 

In- 

Average 

In- 

Age last 
birthday. 

Average 

In- 

Average 

In- 

height, 

crease  in 

weight, 

crease  in 

height, 

crease  in 

weight, 

crease  in 

inches. 

inches. 

pounds. 

pounds. 

inches. 

inches. 

pounds. 

pounds. 

Birth 

19.52 



7-i 



Birth 

19-31 



6.9 



0-1 

27.OO 

— 

— 

— 

O-I 

24.83 

5-52 

— 

— 

I 

33-5° 

— 

— 

— 

1 

27.50 

2.67 

20.I 

— 

2 

33-70 

— 

32-5 

— 

2 

32-33 

4-83 

25-3 

5.2 

3 

36.82 

— 

34-o 

i-5 

3 

36.23 

3-90 

3I.6 

6-3 

4 

3846 

I.64 

37-3 

3-3 

4 

38.26 

2.03 

36.I 

4-5 

5 

41.03 

2-57 

39-9 

2.6 

5 

40.55 

2.29 

39-2 

3-1 

6 

44.00 

2.97 

44-4 

4-5 

6 

42.88 

2-33 

41.7 

2-5 

7 

45-97 

I.97 

49-7 

5-3 

7 

44-45 

i-57 

47-5 

5.8 

8 

47-°5 

I.08 

54-9 

5-2 

8 

46.60 

2.15 

52-1 

4.6 

9 

49.70 

2.65 

60.4 

5-5 

9 

48.73 

2.13 

55-5 

3-4 

10 

51.84 

2.14 

67-5 

7-1 

10 

5^5 

2.32 

62.0 

6.5 

11 

53-5° 

1.66 

72.0 

4-5 

11 

53-io 

2.05 

68.1 

6.1 

12 

54-99 

1.49 

76.7 

4-7 

12 

55.66 

2.56 

76.4 

8-3 

13 

56.91 

1.92 

82.6 

5-9 

13 

57-77 

2. 11 

87.2 

10.8 

H 

59-33 

2.42 

92.0 

9-4 

h  ; 

59.80 

2.03 

96.7 

9-5 

15 

62.24 

2.91 

102.7 

10.7 

*5 

60.93 

I-!3 

106.3 

9.6 

16 

64.31 

2.07 

1 19.0 

16.3 

16 

6i-75 

.82 

113.1 

6.8 

17 

66.24 

1-93 

130.9 

11.9 

17 

62.52 

•77 

"5-5 

2.4 

18 

66.96 

.72 

137-4 

6-5 

18 

62.44 

121. 1 

5-6 

19 

67.29 

•33 

139.6 

2.2 

19 

62.75 

•23 

123.8 

2-7 

20 

67-52 

•23 

143-3 

3-7 

20 

62.98 

•23 

123.4 

.6 

21 

67.63 

.11 

145-2 

i-9 

21 

63-03 

•°5 

121.8 

— 

22 

67.68 

•°5 

146.9 

i-7 

22 

62.87 

— 

123.4 

— 

23 

67.48 

147-8 

•9 

23 

63.01 

— 

124. 1 

•7 

24 

67-73 

•°5 

148.0 

.2 

24 

62.70 

— 

120.8 

— 

25-30 

67.80 

.07 

I52-3 

4-3 

25-30 

62.02 

— 

120.0 

— 

30-35 

68.00 

.20 

159-8 

7-5 

30-35 

— 

120.8 

— 

35-40 

68.00 

— 

164.3 

4-5 

35-40 

— 

120.8 

— 

40-50 

67.96 

— 

163-3 

— 

j       40-50 

■  61.15 

— 

1 1 8.0 

— 

50-60 

67.92 

— 

1 66. 1 

1.8 

5O-60 

— 

104.0 

— 

60-70 

67.41 

— 

158.1 

2.0 

60-7O 

— 

— 

— 

70 

69.22 

1.22 

182.1 

~ 

7° 

- 

106.0 

GENERAL  EFFECTS   OF  EXERCISE.  17 

The  following  comments  upon  the  series  of  tables  of  which  the  above  is  an 
abstract  are  furnished  by  the  Anthropometric  Committee  : — 

1.  Growth  is  most  rapid  during  the  first  five  years  of  life. 

2.  From  birth  to  the  age  of  five  years  the  rate  of  growth  is  the  same  in  both 
sexes,  girls  being  a  little  shorter  in  stature  and  lighter  in  weight  than  boys. 

3.  From  five  to  ten  years  boys  grow  a  little  more  rapidly  than  girls,  the 
difference  being  apparently  due  to  a  check  in  the  growth  of  girls  at  these  ages. 

4.  From  ten  to  fifteen  years  girls  grow  more  rapidly  than  boys,  and  at  the 
ages  of  eleven  and  a  half  to  fourteen  and  a  half  are  actually  taller,  and  from 
twelve  and  a  half  to  fifteen  and  a  half  years  actually  heavier  than  boys.  This 
difference  appears  to  be  due  to  a  check  in  the  growth  of  boys  as  well  as  an 
acceleration  in  the  growth  of  girls  incident  on  the  accession  of  puberty. 

5.  From  fifteen  to  twenty  years  boys  again  take  the  lead,  and  grow  at  first 
rapidly,  then  gradually  slower,  and  complete  their  growth  at  about  twenty- 
three  years.  After  fifteen,  girls  grow  very  slowly,  and  attain  their  full  stature 
about  the  twentieth  year. 

6.  The  tables  show  a  slow  but  steady  increase  in  stature  up  to  the  fiftieth 
year,  and  a  more  rapid  increase  in  weight  up  to  the  sixtieth  year  in  males,  but 
the  statistics  of  females  are  too  few  after  the  age  of  twenty-three  to  determine 
the  stature  and  weight  of  that  sex  at  the  more  advanced  periods  of  life. 

"It  is  probably  due  to  the  greater  or  less  development  of  the  body  at 
the  time  of  the  accession  of  puberty,"  writes  Mr.  Roberts,  "  that  the  final  dif- 
ference in  the  height  of  individuals  is  chiefly  to  be  attributed  ;  hence  the  in- 
fluences which  promote  or  retard  growth  at  this  period  are  most  deserving  of 
study.  In  boys  puberty  occurs  later,  and  is  less  regular  and  decided,  than  in 
girls.     The  transition  from   boyhood    to   manhood    extends   over  a   period   of 

three  to  four  years,  and  i--  a apanied  by  increased   physical  development 

of  the  body  ;   but   girls   develop  into  women    in    a    tew  months,  and    witli   the 
complete  establishment  of  puberty,  growth  in  height  is  much  diminished,  and 

often  <  >•  ises  altogetl 

further  contribution  to  the  Bubjecl  of  the  growth  of  boys,  the  following 

tables,  compiled  by  M.i<  l.ircn,  may  he  added  :  — 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 


Table  II. — Showing  the  State  of  Growth  and  Development  between  the  ages  of  10  and  18 
years,  being  the  averages  of  the  actual  ??ieasureme?its  of  ioo  boys  at  each  age.    (Maclaren.) 


Table   III. — Abstract  of  precedi7ig  Table  showing  average  Annual  Rate  of  Growth  and 
Development  from  year  to  year.     {/Maclaren.) 


Upper 
Arm. 


From  10  years  to  II  years 


"II        ' 

'           12 

"12           ' 

13 

"       13 

14 

"       14 

15 

"       15 

16 

"       16 

17 

«       1? 

18 

Height. 

Weight. 

Girth  of 
Chest. 

Forearm. 

Inches. 

Pounds. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

ii 

5 

I 

1 

•1 

2 

8J 

li- 

1 
4 

n 

6 

I 

1 
4 

A 

8| 

I 

i 

4 

*k 

10} 

It 

1 
2 

2 

13 

If 

1 
2 

2 

12 

li 

1 

7»" 

1 

8} 

1 

i 

4 

Inches. 


Some  children  appear  to  grow  by  fits  and  starts.  Children  who  have  re- 
mained for  many  successive  years  under  the  average  height  may  suddenly 
shoot  up  and  attain  more  than  the  normal  stature  when  they  reach  adult  age. 
(See  in  connection  with  this  matter  Case  4,  Table  VII.) 

The  extremes  in  development  are  well  illustrated  by  the  following  observa- 
tions made  by  Maclaren.  They  give  the  result  of  the  examination  of  100 
University  men  (freshmen)  who  were  not  especially  selected. 

The  greatest  The  smallest 

developments.  developments. 

Height 6  ft.  6  in.  5  ft.  2  in. 

Weight    12  st.  2  lb.  7  st. 

Chest  girth 39  in.  27]  in. 

Forearm 1 1  j  in.  Sh  in. 

Upper  arm 1 2%  in.  8|  in. 

The  effect  of  occupation  and  social  and  physical  condition  upon  develop- 
ment is  well  demonstrated  by  the  statistics  prepared  by  Mr.  Roberts  and  the 
Anthropometric  Committee. 


GENERAL   EFFECTS   OF  EXERCISE.  19 

The  following  tables  are  derived  (in  abstract)  from  the  report  of  the  com- 
mittee : — 

TABLE  IV. — Relative  Height  of  Boys  at  the  age  of  11  to  12  years  wider  different  social 

and  physical  conditions  of  life. 

Average  height. 

Public  schools  (country) 54-9^  inches. 

Middle-class  schools : 

Upper  (towns)    53.85  " 

Lower  (towns)   53-7°  " 

Elementary  schools : 

Agricultural  laborers 53-ox  " 

Artisans  ( town  | 52.60  " 

Factory  hands  (country) 52.1 7  " 

Factory  hands  (towns) 5 1 .56       " 

Military  asylums 51.20  " 

Industrial  schools    50.02  " 

TABLE  V. — Relative  Height  of  Adults  of  the  ages  from  25  to  jo  years  under  different  social 

and  physical  conditions  of  life. 

Average  height. 

Upper  classes,  professional  classes 69.14  inches. 

<  ommercia]  classes,  clerks,  shopkeepers,  &c 67.95        '• 

Agricultural  laborers,  miners,  sailors,  &c 67.5 1        " 

Artisan  classes  (towns) 66. 61        " 

la.  tory  hands,  workers  at  sedentary  trades — e.  g.  tailors 65.92        " 

The  question  of  the  relation  of  weight  to  height  will  be  found  considered  in 
Table  I. 

Table  VI.  gives  the  average  chest-girth  in  males  at  different  periods  of  life 
(see  also  Tables  II.  and  III.)  The  chest-girth  in  males  shows  an  increase  at 
a  rate  similar  to  that  of  the  weight  up  to  the  age  of  fifty  years,  but  it  appears 
to  have  no  definite  relation  to  stature. 

TAB]  i    VI.— Average  Chest-girth  (empty)  111  inches  in  .1/tiles  of  till  classes  at  different  ages 
(Report  of  Anthropometric  Committee'). 

■  \\.  Cheat-girth  Age  next  t-girth  Arc  next  f*brii  giith 

intnebe*.  birthday.  in  inches,  birthday.  in"in 

1° 26.10  16 31.53  35.33 

"    26.53  17  I 

I  -' Z-J.2Q  IS 34.19  I  \    

1  ; *fco3  "> 

1 1 20 30-3S 17 

■5 *9-74  21  35.35     i     36-50 37.5S 

effect  of  [zed  exercise  upon  the  growth  and  development  of 

and  men  may  now  be  considered.     In  the  Report  of  the-  Anthropometric 

ie  measurements  of  eighty-nine  i  i  1  and  amateur  athletes 

i  with  the  following  result     "Their  average  stature  exceeds  thai  of 

the  genera]  population  from  which  they  are  drawn  by  0.68  inch,  while  their 

■  ige  weight  falls  short  of  thai  standard  by  14.5  lb.     The  ratio  of  weight  to 

ad  in  the  general  population  8.383  lb.  for 
each  ini  h  of  stature.    Thus  s  trained  athlete  whose  stature  is  5  feet  7  inches 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 


should  weigh  10  stone,  while  an  untrained  man  of  the   same  height  should 
weigh  ii  stone." 

Table  VII. —  To  show  the  Effects  of  Systematized  Exercise  upon  growth  and  development, 

(Alaclaren.) 


- 

Measurements,  etc. 

Increase. 

1 

, 

.    1 

Remarks. 

i)  6 

0  e 

£ 

.a 

w   :  i  6 

«  S 

Case,  j        Date. 

3 

Height. 

Weight. 

J3 

0  rt 

a.  s 

_M 

.£P 

-c    j  0  n 

> 

O 

fn 

£> 

In. 

1 
Lb. 

In.     In. 

In. 

1 

1 

Ft 

in.  !   St 

lb. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

i   i  1861,  June. 

10 

4 

6%    4 

10 

26 

7% 

7% 

j  1862,  Sept. 

11 

4 

9%    5 

5 

28%  8% 

8l% 

2% 

9 

2%,   1% 

1 

Height  above  average. 

1803,  Sept. 

12 

4 

10%    6 

0 

30%  slA 

8ji 

1%    9 

2 

% 

Other  measurements 

1  1864,  June. 

13 

S 

2*4      7 

2 

32%      9'% 

9% 

3%  16 

2 

% 

1 

average. 

!  1865,  May. 

14 

S 

3 

35%    9%ji°% 

3%|IS 

3 

% 

%  From  commencement, 

I  1866,  May. 

is 

S 

9      10 

2 

37>£  11       12     I 

3%  27 

2 

1% 

tU 

growth     rapid     and 

1867,  Sept. 

16 

5 

9%  10 

13 

38%  uli  12% 
39%  1  i/V  13% 

%n 

1 

% 

sustained,  with  reg- 

1 18&8,  Sept. 

17 

5 

10%  11 

2 

1% 

3 

1 

Vs 

1 

ular  and  uniform  de- 

velopment. 

12 

4 

i%l  3 

Total  increase  .   . 

16 

1     x 
9°     ,13% 

4% 

sVb 

2  [  i860,  Jan. 

13     !23% 

6% 

6 

Height   and   all   other 

i860,  July. 

12 

4 

3f§4 

4%    4 

0     ,24 

7 

6%' 

^    T 

% 

% 

*4 

measurements  great- 

i860, Dec. 

13 

4 

1      24% 

7 

7     1 

%!  1 

% 

% 

ly     below     average. 

i85i,  Dec. 

14 

4 

4%    4 

7 

25 

7% 

$ 

—  |  6 

% 

1 

Whole  frame  stunted 

1862,  July. 

14 

4 

sVs    4 

8 

26 

7% 

%l  1 

1 

% 

and    dwarfish.     Ad- 

1863, Mar. 

15 

4 

7%    4 

12 

26% 

7f&    7% 

8%    8V 

1%    4 

% 

% 

% 

vancement    at     first 

1  1864,  July. 

16 

4 

ii%l  6 

6 

29% 

4    ;22 

3 

1 

1% 

slight    and   very   ir- 

i 

regular,     afterwards 

1 

rapid  and  compara- 
tively regular. 

14 

4 

Total  increase  .    . 

9%  35     1  6       2% 

2% 

3   1  1859,  Dec. 

5 

6 

1 

26^!  8 

7$ 

1 

Height  greatly  below 

i860,  Sept. 

14 

5 

2 

6 

4 

29     1  9 

9% 

11     1  3 

2% 

1 

1% 

average ;  other  mea- 

1861, July. 

15 

5 

4% 

7 

7 

3°     |  9 

9% 

2%  17 

1 

— 

surements  also  con- 

1  1862,  Sept. 

IS 

5 

7% 

8 

12 

34%  1° 

11% 

2/4  19 

4% 

1 

1% 

s  i  d  e  r  a  b  1  y    below 

1 

average.          Instant 

I 

and  extreme  acceler- 
ation of  growth  with 

Total  increase  .    . 

i°%  39 

8 

2 

3% 

moderate  increase  in 

19 

s 

5 

3M    8 

development. 

4 

1859,  Oct. 
1859,  Dec. 

0  |3°% 

1  33 

9%  i°% 

%\  1 

2% 

% 

SA 

Well  proportioned.     A 

5 

3% 

8 

1      33 

9%  log 

%    - 

— 

— 

— 

remarkable     feature 

i860,  Jan. 

20 

4% 

lost 

is   the   renewal    and 



— 

5 

4 

8 

1      33% 

9%' 10% 
9gio>| 
9%.  10% 

Ys 

— 

x6 

% 

— 

steady    continuation 

—    June. 



5 

4% 

8 

3      34 

% 

2 

?i 

— 

— 

of     the     upward 



— 

5 

4%l  8 

5     134% 

— 

2 

% 

% 

% 

growth     which    had 

been  prematurely  ar- 

1 

1 

rested. 

Total  increase  .    . 

2 

5 

334'     % 

1 

1 

5  1  1859,  Oct. 

17 

6 

0        9 

4     |3°% 

8M!  9% 

Of      delicate      frame: 

|  i860,  Jan. 

17 

6 

0        9 

9     (32% 

off  10 

9/4  10% 

—  5 

2 

1 

Y% 

chest  flat   and    nar- 

i860, June. 
1  i860,  June. 

18 

6 

°%!  9 

"%:34 

%  *% 
—  1% 

1% 

A 

row,    with    sternum 

18 

6 

°%!  9 

13     134% 

% 

k 

much  depressed. 

Total  increase  .   . 

%  9 

1 

4 

I 

1% 

GENERAL  EFFECTS   OF  EXERCISE. 


21 


This  question  of  the  effect  of  systematic  exercise  upon  development  has 
been  fully  dealt  with  by  Mr.  Maclaren. 

His  tables  dealing  with  the  subject  are  of  great  value,  and  should  be  con- 
sulted by  all  those  who  are  interested  in  the  matter.  In  the  appended  tables 
a  selection  from  these  statistics  is  given.  The  normal  increase  in  height  and 
weight,  as  given  in  Table  I.,  must  be  taken  into  consideration. 

Table  VIII. — Measurements  of  twelve  Non-commissioned  Officers  (selected  to  be  qualified  as 
Military  Gymnastic  Instructors  after  eight  months'  training?)     (Maclaren.) 

Increase  noted  at  end  of  period. 


Age. 

Height. 

Weight. 

Girth  of  Chest. 

Forearm. 

Upper  Ann. 

Years. 

In. 

Lb. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

19 

13 

4i 

I 

' 

21 

\ 

10 

3 

I 

M 

23 

9 

34 

I 

If 

23 

9 

ij 

l\ 

I 

23 

\ 

10 

1 

9 

I 

23 

\ 

9 

2 

) 

I 

23 

\ 

5 

2h 

1 

I 

24 

.'. 

12 

5 

I 

ir 

26 

1 

6', 

3 

1 

1 J 

J 

9 

1 

1 

28 

\ 

'3 

3 

1} 

28 

1 

16 

3 

M 

1 

In  an  examination  of  Tables  VII.  and  VIII.  the  increase  in  weight  under 
systematized  1  ,  after  allowing  for  normal  increase,  is  noteworthy. 

In  the  matter  of  increase  in  growth,  Case  4,  Table  VII.,  is  interesting  as 
showing  the  renewal  of  growth  after  pr<  mature  arrest,  the  young  man  growing 
2  inches  after  nineteen.     Mr.  Maclaren  gives  several  other  instances  v( 

sudden  growth  after   premature  arrest.      In  Table  VII.  the  increase  in  height 

of  the  older  men  in  the  list  is  of  interest     ha  the  majority  it  may  be  ih\c  to  ■ 
of  the  figure,  to  the  lessening,  therefore,  of  some  of  the 

curvature  of  the  spine,  and  perhaps    to   some   in<  rease    in    the    intr.ivcrtehral 

In  tl  I  the  soldiers  in  Table  Vlll.  the  question  of  the  improvement 

of  the  carriage  can  s<  ircelj  come  into  consideration,  and  the  increase  in 

th  to  =    ths  of  an  inch  in  the  last  tour  men  must  be  ascribed  to 

changes  in  thi  in  case  3,  rable  VII.,  the  immediate  effecl  of 

tematized  ex  1  pparentl)  mown  by  a  remarkable  increase  in  height  of 

DO  lc>-.  than   1  1   inches  in  a  period  of  nine  mon 


22  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

A  further  point  in  these  tables  must  be  noticed,  and  that  is  the  remarkable 
increase  in  the  circumference  of  the  chest,  which,  it  would  appear,  may  be 
obtained  by  systematic  exercise. 

An  increase  of  3  to  4  inches  in  the  girth  of  the  thorax  may  no  doubt  be  in 
great  part  ascribed  to  muscular  development  in  the  pectoral  and  scapular 
regions.  It  involves,  however,  an  increased  respiratory  power,  and  a  greater 
breathing  capacity. 

In  a  country  where  lung  diseases  are  so  common  as  they  are  in  England,  it 
is  difficult  to  speak  too  strongly  of  the  importance  of  obtaining  a  full  develop- 
ment of  the  chest. 

Physicians  recognize  the  part  played  by  a  narrow  thorax  and  a  feeble 
breathing  power  in  aiding  the  evolution  of  chronic  lung  disease  and  in  pro- 
moting the  progress  of  such  processes  as  are  acute. 

Considering  the  definite  and  apparently  assured  results  of  physical  training 
in  this  direction,  it  appears  culpable  to  allow  a  child  to  grow  up  surrounded 
by  the  undoubted  dangers  which  attend  the  possession  of  a  constricted  chest. 

It  will  be  observed  from  the  above  tables  that  a  great  increase  in  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  chest  can  take  place  as  an  almost  solitary  feature  of 
development.  Mr.  Maclaren  gives  the  case  of  a  lad  of  nineteen  whose  height 
was  not  increased  by  systematic  exercise,  but  who  increased  the  girth  of  his 
chest  by  4 ) /%  inches  in  nine  months. 

It  is  well  also  to  note  that  an  improvement  in  the  measurements  of  the 
chest  can  be  effected  many  years  after  the  period  of  youth  has  passed.  Thus 
Maclaren  cites  the  case  of  a  gentleman  aged  thirty-five  who  at  the  end  of  two 
months'  exercise  at  the  Oxford  Gymnasium  had  increased  the  circumference 
of  his  thorax  by  no  less  than  4^2  inches.  His  height  was  diminished  by  an 
eighth  of  an  inch,  due  probably  to  an  increase  in  the  curvature  of  the  thoracic 
part  of  the  spine. 

In  considering  the  general  question  of  increase  in  chest  girth  care  must  be 
taken  not  to  ascribe  this  increase — as  some  appear  inclined  to  do — entirely 
to  an  increase  in  the  capacity  of  the  thoracic  cavity.  This  is  probably  in  all 
cases  of  much  less  effect  than  muscular  development.  Those  who  practice 
excessively  with  gymnastic  apparatus  acquire  a  peculiar  conformation  of  the 
chest,  the  main  factor  in  which  is  certainly  not  an  increase  in  the  capacity  of 
the  thorax. 

2.  The  Proportions  of  the  Body. — A  proper  physical  training  does  some- 
thing more  than  merely  increase  the  size  of  the  limbs  and  possibly  the  height 


GENERAL  EFFECTS   OF  EXERCISE.  23 

of  the  body.     It  tends  to  render  all  parts  of  the  body  symmetrical  and  more 
perfectly  proportioned. 

A  well-proportioned  body  has  a  grace  which  is  independent  of  mere  size, 
height,  and  strength.  It  is  in  women  especially  that  the  great  lack  of  a  per- 
fect proportion  is  so  often  conspicuous.  In  one  the  hips  are  out  of  propor- 
tion to  the  shoulders ;  in  another  the  width  of  the  chest  is  totally  out  of 
keeping  with  the  height  of  the  body ;  in  a  third  the  length  of  the  upper  limbs 
is  not  in  proportion  to  the  dimensions  of  the  trunk. 

Those  who  have  taken  properly  arranged  exercise  from  their  earliest  youth 
may  still  need  many  graces,  but  they  will  probably  possess  the  peculiar  grace 
which  belongs  to  a  symmetrical  body. 

Of  all  animals  man  is  the  most  subject  to  variations  in  proportion  anil  in 
symmetry.  It  is  certain  that  in  some  children  the  body  develops  unevenly  : 
one  side  appears  to  be  larger  than  the  other ;  one  limb  may  be  longer  than 
its  fellow ;  one  side  of  the  thorax  may  be  of  greater  circumference  than  the 
other.  Such  deviations — which  in  no  sense  constitute  deformity — a  well- 
directed  system  of  physical  training  may  correct. 

It  is  common  to  meet  a  long,  lanky  lad  with  spider-like  arms  and  legs,  a 
meagre  neck,  and  a  narrow  chest.  It  is  probably  said  that  he  has  "outgrown 
his  strength."  In  reality  his  growth  in  height  has  been  out  of  proportion  to 
his  growth  in  muscular  power.  With  proper  training  such  a  lad  ceases  to  be 
lanky ;  he  becomes  merely  tall,  his  chest  fills  out,  his  arms  acquire  a  greater 
girth,  his  neck  becomes  sinewy,  and  the  "  scarecrow "  of  the  schooln 
becon  !>ly  a  lithe,  well-proportioned  youth. 

Another  lad  maybe  squaf  and  "stumpy "  and  heavy  looking.     lie  has  a 
big   bead   and  a  wide  chest  and   limbs  which  appear  to  be  ridiculously  out  of 
proportion  to  his  burly  trunk,     lie  begins  to  pursue  every  available  form  of 
ind  outdoor  recreation,  and   in  a  few  y<    1  >  sprung  up.     Ilis 

wide  chest  has  stood  him  in  good  stead,  and   his  liiul.^  arc  now  no  longer  out 
of  keeping  with  his  body. 

following  account  of  ;  I  proportions  of  tl  is  founded 

upon  that  given  by  Mr.  Robert  -  in  his  "  Manual  of  Anthropometrj ." 

//,;/./.-   (  If  .ill    part  ■  of  the  body,  the  heal  v.:nc  .  1c  .  >t  in    it^    piopor- 

tions  during  growth.     In  the  average  adult  it  is  considered  to  form  the 
nth  part  ot  the  whole  height.     From  birth  to  the  period  of  full  develop- 
ed only  doubl(  ht,  while  the  whole  body  elongates  three 
or  four  times  it-  original  dimensions.    T  wth  of  the  head  is 


24  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

during  the  first  two  years  of  life.  The  lower  parts  of  the  face  grow  at  a 
greater  rate  than  the  upper,  and  all  the  horizontal  measurements  of  the  head 
develop  less  than  those  of  height. 

The  Trunk. — The  height  of  the  neck  increases  irregularly.  The  most 
rapid  growth  is  at  puberty.  The  neck  ultimately  attains  to  double  its  original 
dimensions.  The  other  parts  of  the  body  increase  with  greater  energy,  and 
growth  is  greater  the  further  the  parts  are  situated  from  the  summit  of  the 
head.  Thus,  while  the  measurements  of  the  head  and  neck  are  only  doubled, 
those  of  the  trunk  are  tripled,  and  those  of  the  lower  extremities  are  more 
than  quadrupled.  The  transverse  diameters  of  the  trunk  increase  nearly  in 
the  same  ratio  as  the  height.  They  triple  from  birth  to  the  period  of  full 
development.  At  the  age  of  six  or  seven,  this  diameter  is  already  doubled. 
The  antero-posterior  diameter  of  the  thorax  increases  less  rapidly  and  is  not 
doubled  until  about  puberty. 

At  the  time  of  birth,  when  the  child  is  about  the  sixth  of  the  height  it  will 
ultimately  attain  to,  the  point  which  divides  the  total  height  into  two  equal 
parts  is  a  little  above  the  navel ;  at  two  years  of  age  it  is  at  the  navel ;  at 
three  years,  when  the  child  has  attained  half  its  total  height,  the  central  point 
is  on  a  line  with  the  upper  borders  of  the  iliac  bones ;  at  ten  years  of  age, 
when  the  child  has  attained  three-fourths  of  its  total  height,  the  central  point 
is  on  a  line  with  the  trochanters ;  at  thirteen  years  it  is  at  the  pubes,  and  in 
the  adult  man  it  is  nearly  half  an  inch  lower.  In  the  adult  woman  the  cen- 
tral point  is  a  little  above  the  pubes. 

The  Upper  Limbs. — The  space  covered  by  the  arms  extended  horizontally 
is  equal  to  the  total  height  of  the  body  from  birth  to  puberty. 

In  the  adult  man  the  ratio  of  the  height  to  the  measurement  of  the  ex- 
tended arms  is  as  i  to  1.045  '>  an(l  m  tne  adult  woman  as  1  to  1.015.  The 
length  of  the  arm — excluding  the  hand — is  doubled  at  the  age  between  four 
and  five  years,  tripled  between  thirteen  and  fourteen,  and  quadrupled  at  the 
period  of  full  development.  The  hand  develops  less  rapidly.  After  the  age 
of  seven  or  eight  the  length  of  the  hand  has  the  ratio  to  the  total  height  of 
one  to  nine,     This  applies  to  adults  both  male  and  female. 

The  Lower  Limb. — The  lower  extremities  in  adults  are  five  times  the 
length  they  were  at  birth.  They  double  their  length  before  the  third  year, 
and  at  twelve  they  are  four  times  their  original  length.  The  length  of  the 
thigh  varies  considerably,  and  has  much  to  do  with  the  differences  in' the  total 
height  of  individuals.     The  foot  at  all  ages  of  life  and  in  both  sexes  forms 


GENERAL  EFFECTS   OF  EXERCISE.  25 

from  the  0.15  to  0.16  of  the  total  height  of  the  individual.  It  is  only  about 
the  age  of  ten  that  the  length  of  the  foot  is  equal  to  the  height  of  the  head. 
Before  that  period  the  head  is  the  longer,  and  after  it  the  shorter. 

The  pe7-fect  Female  Form. — The  relative  proportions  of  a  perfect  female 
form  as  deduced  by  modern  sculptors  from  Greek  statues  have  been  given  as 
1"  illows.  Her  height  will  be  five  feet  five  inches.  With  the  arms  extended 
the  measurement  from  finger-tip  to  finger-tip  should  be  equal  to  her  own 
ht.  The  hand  should  be  r'uth  of  this,  the  foot  'th,  and  the  chest 
diameter  th.  From  her  perineum  to  the  ground  she  should  measure  just 
t  she  measures  from  the  perineum  to  the  top  of  the  head.  The  knee 
should  be  midway  between  the  perineum  and  the  heel. 

The  distance  from  the  elbow  to  the  middle  finger  should  be  the  same  as 
from  the  elbow  to  the  middle  of  the  chest.  The  head  should  be  about  the 
length  of  the  foot.  A  woman  of  this  height  should  measure  24  inches  about 
the  waist,  34  inches  around  the  chest  if  measured  under  the  arms,  and  43  if 
measured  over  them.  The  upper  arm  should  measure  13  inches  and  the 
wrist  6.  The  circumference  of  the  thigh  should  be  25  inches,  of  the  calf  of 
the  leg  14JJ  inches,  and  of  the  ankle  8  inches. 

In  determining  the  rate  of  growth  and  development  of  the  body  the  fol- 
lowing system  of  measurements,  advised  by  Mr.  Maclaren  and  given  in  his 
well-known  work,  may  be  followed  out : 

System  of  Measurements. 
Height  (without  boots). — The  position  >>f  attention,  the  I  her,  the  knees  ! -i. 

.  the  chin  raise!,  the   bead    held   Steady,  the  sboalden  square   to   the  front,  the  heels, 
1  touching  the  pillar  of  the  standard. 
X.  B,     This   1..  p    it..!,  shoul  1    always  he    taken   at  the  same   ti:n 

the  day,  and  after  imount  ol  bodily  exertion. 

:/ — In  working  costume,  i.  c,  in  li^!a  shoes,  flannel  trousers,  flannel  shirt  01 
\.  1'..     rhis  measurement,  when  repeated,  should  alws  n  at  the  same  time  of 

the  day,  and  with  reference  to  any  circumstance  win.  h  woul 

Chest. — Over  the  jersey  Or  naked  breast.  The  position  ,.f  attention,  but  with  the  arms 
horizontally  extes      .  I       palms  of  the  bai  ds  held  npwai  -  <.  straight. 

boul  1  1"'  passe  1  aroun  i  the  1  best  in  the  line  of  the  nipple. 
X.  l'.     Care  must        taken  that  the  chest  is  not  inflated  nsion  dur- 

rdinary  breathing.     Where  a  single  m  i-  taken  the  above  line  is  the 

raging  appn  muscular  and  respiratory    apadty;  but  when  the  lat- 

ter quality  Is  of  primary  importance  (as  in  rowis  .ken 

■  the  ninth  rib. 
In  n  recruits  in  army,  the  -  ere  t,  with  the  arms  banging 


26  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

loosely  by  the  side.  The  lower  edge  of  the  tape  should  touch  the  nipple.  The  man  is  re- 
quired to  count  ten  slowly  during  the  operation,  to  prevent  him  from  keeping  his  lungs 
over-inflated. 

Forearm  (skin  measurement). — The  arm  extended  as  in  the  preceding  measurement,  but 
with  the  hand  tightly  closed,  the  tape  to  be  passed  around  the  thickest  part  of  the  arm,  and 
its  girth  at  that  point  reckoned. 

N.  B. — With  men  who  have  taken  little  exercise  this  line  will  always  be  found  near  the 
elbow  joint,  but  as  the  limb  becomes  developed,  and  the  numerous  muscles  of  trie  forearm 
acquire  bulk  and  power  from  exercise,  the  greatest  girth  will  be  found  from  to  2  to  3  inches 
below  it.  Unless  this  circumstance  be  kept  in  view  the  actual  increase  will  not  be  per- 
ceived. 

Upper  arm  (skin  measurement). — The  hand  closed,  the  arm  bent  at  the  elbow,  and  the 
hand  brought  clown  towards  the  shoulder.  This  should  be  slowly  and  gradually  done,  bend- 
ing the  joints  of  the  fingers,  clenching  the  fist,  and  bringing  the  forearm  down  upon  the 
upper  arm,  the  tape  to  be  passed  in  a  straight  line  around  the  thickest  part  of  the  arm. 

N.  B. — When  the  whole  arm  is  fully  developed,  the  difference  in  size  between  the  fore 
and  upper  arm  in  an  adult  of  medium  stature  will  be  about  2  inches,  and  it  will  almost  in- 
variably be  found  that  when  the  upper  arm  is  feeble  the  upper  region  of  the  chest  will  be 
feeble  also.     With  a  chest  of  40  inches  the  arm  would  probably  be  12  inches  and  14  inches. 

Calf  (skin  measurement). — The  limb  to  be  held  stiff  and  straight,  the  heel  raised  from 
the  ground,  the  toes  pressed  strongly  down,  and  the  knee  braced  back.  The  tape  is  to  be 
passed  around  the  thickest  part  of  the  calf;  and  as  the  position  of  this  line  will  somewhat 
vary  with  different  men,  and  with  the  same  limb  in  different  stages  of  development,  one  or 
two  points  should  be  tried,  and  that  which  shows  the  greatest  girth  selected. 

Thigh  (skin  measurement). — The  limb  placed  as  in  preceding  measurement,  the  tape  to 
be  passed  in  a  horizontal  line  around  the  thickest  part  of  the  limb,  which  will  be  at  the 
highest  point  of  the  thigh  admitting  of  horizontal  measurement. 

2.   The  Effect  of  Exercise  upon  the   Muscular  and  Nervous  Systems. 

Of  the  exact  changes  which  take  place  in  active  muscle,  and  of  the  circum- 
stances attending  muscular  contraction,  it  is  needless  to  deal  at  any  length. 
The  matter  is  fully  considered  in  every  text-book  of  physiology. 

The  following  brief  account  of  the  metabolism  in  muscle  may  be  given  :  In 
an  active  muscle  the  blood-vessels  are  dilated.  The  neutral  or  feebly  alka- 
line reaction  of  the  passive  structure  becomes  an  acid  reaction  when  the  mus- 
cle is  contracting,  owing,  it  is  supposed,  to  the  formation  of  paralactic  acid. 
A  considerable  quantity  of  carbon  dioxide  is  excreted  from  the  active  muscle, 
while  a  large  proportion  of  oxygen  is  consumed.  The  amount  of  glycogen 
and  grape  sugar  is  diminished  in  an  active  muscle,  the  tissue  of  which  contains 
less  extractives  soluble  in  water,  but  more  extractives  soluble  in  alcohol. 
During  exercise  the  amount  of  water  in  muscular  tissue  increases,  while  that 


GENERAL   EFFECTS   OF  EXERCISE.  27 

of  the  blood  is  diminished  in  proportion.     Heat  is  formed  in  a  muscle  in  a 
state  of  activity. 

Turning  to  more  general  matters  concerning  the  muscular  system,  it  has 
been  well  said  that  "  function  makes  structure,"  and  it  is  certain  that  muscular 
exercise  makes  muscular  tissue.  Not  only  is  the  exercised  muscle  increased 
in  size,  both  as  a  whole  and  as  far  as  its  individual  parts  are  concerned,  but 
there  is  eliminated  from  it  such  tissue  as  is  other  than  muscular.  The  fat 
contained  among  its  meshes  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  the  connective  tissue 
is  lessened  in  amount,  the  aponeurotic  parts  are  strengthened,  and  the  struc- 
ture of  the  muscle  is  so  amended  that  it  is  hampered  by  no  material  other 
than  that  concerned  in  actual  movement.  It  is  freed,  moreover,  of  such 
nitrogenous  substances  as  are  capable  of  giving  rise  to  superabundant  waste 
product-,  cf  combustion. 

There  is  a  limit,  of  course,  to  the  growth  of  muscles,  and  muscles  exercised 
to  too  great  an  extent  will,  after  attaining  a  certain  size,  commence  to  waste. 
The  contractile  force  of  the  muscle  is  increased,  and  an  improvement  takes 
place  in  those  conditions  which  insure  the  speedy  and  complete  contraction 
of  its  fibres.  It  has  been  pointed  out  that  the  muscles  of  an  athlete  when  in 
training  contract  with  extraordinary  force  under  the  electric  current ;  the 
muscular  sense  is  developed  to  its  utmost,  and  the  circumstances  involved  in 
the  performance  of  a  reflex  act  are  placed  under  improved  conditions  ;  the 

ver  of  co-ordination  possessed  by  the  individual  is  augmented ;  he  acquires 
the  art  of  causing  muscles,  which  may  be  said  to  have  been  hitherto  estranged, 
to  act  in  concert,  so  that  movements  which  were  complex  and  effected  with 
difficulty  are  ultimately  carried  out  with  ease.  In  this  way  the  nervous  sys- 
ia  Baved  a  great  expenditure  of  force.  Acts  which  were  performed  with 
effort  and  by  conscious  will  become  automatic,  and  there  is  a  saving  in  the 
enditure  of  active  force  in  the  spinal  cord  and  in  the  cerebral  cortex. 
Complicated  movements  become  " organically  registered  in  the  brain"  and 
cease  to  be  difficult.  One  conspicuous  feature  in  muscular  training  is  the 
increase  in  the  possibilities  of  automatism.  As  time  goes  on,  and  the  indi- 
vidual 1  1  md  more,  he  find-  the  work  becomes  easier  an 
'I  his  depends,  not  only  upon  an  increase  in  the  actual  strength  of  the  p 
but  upon  tin-  greater  e  1  e  with  which  the  muscles  concerned  act  in  coordina- 
tion and  upon  tin-  muscular  experience  of  the  individual,  which  prevents  him 

from    mispUu  in-    Ins   strength,  and    enables   him  to  attain  a  desired  end  with 

the  minimum  amount  of  force. 


aS  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

He  who  is  beginning  to  practice  any  muscular  exercise,  such  as  fencing, 
bicycling,  or  rowing,  will  feel  that  he  moves  stiffly.  The  constant  comment 
of  the  instructor  in  physical  exercises  is,  "Don't  keep  so  stiff!"  "Let  your 
arms  go  loose  !  "  The  beginner  has  not  yet  learnt  how  to  balance  one  set  of 
muscles  against  their  antagonists.  His  movements  are  at  first  very  delibe- 
rately planned,  but  in  time  the  will  ceases  to  concern  itself.  A  memory  is 
developed  in  the  spinal  cord  and  in  the  muscular  centres,  and  one  great 
element  of  fatigue  is  removed. 

Nothing  in  physical  training  is  more  remarkable  than  the  economy  of  force 
which  results  from  muscular  education.  The  well-trained  athlete,  moreover, 
acquires  the  art  of  using  his  respiratory  muscles  with  the  greatest  economy. 
He  does  not  exhaust  himself  with  needlessly  vigorous  breathing  ;  he  learns  to 
precisely  regulate  his  respiratory  movements  to  his  immediate  needs,  and  he 
brings  the  muscles  of  his  thorax  into  co-ordination  with  the  other  muscles 
which  he  employs. 

Just  as  muscles  increase  with  use  and  waste  with  disuse,  so  the  whole  nerve 
apparatus  concerned  in  movement  is  structurally  improved  by  systematic  ex- 
ercise. The  athletic  man  has  better  developed  nerves,  a  more  elaborate  or- 
ganization of  his  spinal  cord  and  of  certain  parts  of  his  brain,  than  has  the 
individual  whose  muscular  system  is  imperfectly  formed.  Just  as  a  certain 
segment  of  the  spinal  cord  and  of  the  cerebral  cortex  wastes  after  the  removal 
of  a  limb,  so  it  may  be  inferred  that  those  parts  become  hypertrophied  and 
elaborated  when  the  limb  in  question  is  unusually  employed. 

"The  differences,"  writes  Sir  Crichton  Browne,  "which  we  notice  between 
man  and  man  in  deportment,  gait  and  expression,  are  but  the  outward  and 
visible  signs  of  individual  variations  in  the  development  of  the  motor  centres 
of  the  brain,  and  the  stammerings,  grimacings,  twitchings,  and  antics  which 
are  so  common  and  annoying,  alike  to  those  who  suffer  and  who  witness  them, 
are  probably  in  many  instances  the  effects  of  neglected  education  of  some  of 
those  centres,  and  might  have  been  abolished  by  timely  drill  and  discipline." 

He  who  has  been  well  trained  physically  possesses  not  only  a  complete  but 
an  intelligent  use  of  his  muscles.  His  movements  are  powerful,  are  under 
absolute  control,  are  precise,  and  capable  of  the  finest  and  most  elaborate 
adjustment. 

The  art  of  the  athlete  consists,  not  in  employing  the  greatest  amount  of 
power  in  effecting  a  movement,  but  in  carrying  out  that  movement  with  the 
least  possible  expenditure  of  force.     The  tyro  at  cycling  will  use  an  amount 


GENERAL  EFFECTS   OF  EXERCISE.  29 

of  muscular  force  in  riding  a  mile  which  would  probably  carry  an  experienced 
rider  some  twenty  miles. 

3.  The  Effect  of  Exercise  Upon  the  Tissues  and  Organs  Generally. 

It  is  needless  in  this  place  to  deal  with  the  subject  of  bodily  heat,  with  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  developed  and  employed,  with  the  conditions  which 
regulate  it  and  attend  its  disposal.  It  is  necessary  only  to  say  that  in  the 
body  work  and  heat  are  always  associated,  and  it  is  believed  that  the  heat  is 
the  cause,  and  not  the  effect  of  the  work.  No  muscular  contraction  can  occur 
without  the  production  of  heat,  but  of  the  precise  manner  in  which  heat  acts 
upon  muscle  and  makes  it  contract,  little  is  known. 

Commenting  upon  this  matter,  Dr.  Lagrange,  in  his  work  on  "The  Physi- 
ology of  Bodily  Exercise"  (page  3 7 ),  observes  :  "Heat  causes  in  muscular 
fibres  the  first  stage  of  contraction,  or  at  least  an  aptitude  for  coming  into 
action  more  quickly  under  the  influence  of  the  will.  A  heated  muscle  seems 
to  have  stored,  in  a  sense,  a  latent  force.  It  has  been  ascertained  that  the 
maximum  aptitude  for  contraction  is  exhibited  by  human  muscles  at  about 
400  C.  It  follows  that  a  man  whose  muscles  are  at  this  temperature  is  able 
to  act  more  quickly,  and  at  once  can  make  use  of  all  his  force. 

"  A  bodily  exercise  is  performed  with  more  vigor  and  ease  when  heat  has 
raised  the  temperature  of  the  muscles.  This  fact  is  so  well  known  that  there 
are  characteristic  phrases  to  express  it  in  common  speech.  We  say  of  a  man 
beginning  an  exercise  of  strength  or  skill  whose  movements  have  not  yet  ac- 
quired all  their  force  and  precision,  that  he  has  not  yet  warmed  to  his  work." 
author  compares  the  preliminary  canter  before  a  race,  the  preliminary 
fight,  and  the  strange  movements  of  an  angry  animal  before 
an  attack,  to  the  he  iting  up  of  a  locomotive.  It  may  be  pointed  out  also  that 
there  is  a  greater  aptitude  fur  bodily  exercises  in  summer  than  in  winter,  and 
that  muscular  action  b<  I  smporarily  paralyzed  b)  Id. 

The  heat  produced  in  the  body  depends  upon  certain  chemical  changes  in 

the  tissues,  certain  <  ora  which  are  mostly,  but  not  exclusively,  oxida- 

products  of  combustion,  or  of  dissimilation,  examples  of  which 

ifforded   b)   1   irbon  dio\idc,  urea,  uric  acid,  etc.,  are   noxious  to  life  ami 
must  be  i-je.  ted    from  the  body  in  one  wiv  or  another  through  1  y  of 

produced  by  an  ej  retention  of  these 

with  in  di  ubje<  t  of  Eatig 

Mu*  iver,  to  remove  any  accumulation  of  fat 

which  n,  1  the  tissues.     Fat  is  the  type  of  what  are  known  as  the 


So  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

reserve  tissues.  It  serves  the  part  of  fuel  for  combustion ;  it  undergoes  dis- 
similation with  remarkable  ease,  and  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  fuel  of  a 
most  combustible  character.  As  fat  forms  no  permanent  structural  part  of  the 
organism,  its  removal  is,  within  limits,  effected  with  no  inconvenience.  The 
fat  man  who  takes  exercise  finds  that  he  soon  becomes  breathless  and  fatigued. 
His  unwonted  muscular  exertion  involves  a  great  series  of  combustion  pro- 
cesses. Fat  would  appear  to  be  of  all  substances  the  one  which  most  readily 
lends  itself  as  material  for  such  changes.  The  result  is  that  in  the  corpulent 
individual  the  products  of  dissimilation  are  produced  in  excess,  and  he  be- 
comes, in  a  certain  sense,  poisoned  by  the  accumulation  of  these  products  (see 
chapter  on  Fatigue)  .  He  is  hampered  also  by  the  unnecessary  weight  of  his 
body,  by  his  feeble  muscles,  and  possibly,  to  some  extent,  by  the  mechanical 
obstacles  offered  by  collections  of  fat.  A  corpulent  man  in  rowing  finds  that 
his  large  abdomen  is  an  actual  mechanical  obstacle  in  the  way  of  his  movements. 

A  fat  man  when  in  training  loses  his  fat.  As  he  becomes  thinner  he  be- 
comes stronger,  his  muscles  act  better,  he  is  less  breathless  on  exertion,  less 
fatigued  after  long-continued  effort,  and  may  in  time  reach  that  excellent  state 
of  health  known  as  "good  condition." 

The  fat  disappears  first  from  the  limbs,  especially  from  the  limbs  which  are 
particularly  employed.  Last  of  all  the  internal  accumulations  disappear,  and 
the  last  feature  to  go  will  probably  be  the  large  abdomen,  which  is  so  terrible 
a  trial  to  would-be  athletes  of  middle  age. 

It  may  here  be  said  that  the  deposit  of  a  certain  amount  of  fat  within  the 
abdomen  is  a  common  accompaniment  of  advancing  age,  and  that  its  forma- 
tion can  best  be  prevented  by  exercise,  and  especially  by  such  exercise  as  in- 
volves the  contraction  of  the  abdominal  muscles.  It  is  exceedingly  rare  to  see 
a  waterman  who  keeps  up  a  good  style  of  rowing  present  an  unduly  promi- 
nent abdomen. 

Exercise,  moreover,  tends  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  tissues  generally. 
The  soft  parts  become  firmer,  more  resistant,  less  easily  bruised  when  dam- 
aged, and  in  all  respects  sounder.  A  man  in  training  is  said  to  be  "hard," 
and  it  is  well  known  that  no  moderate  blow  will  raise  a  bruise  upon  the  person 
of  a  prize-fighter  when  he  is  in  perfect  "condition."  The  general  standard 
of  the  nutritive  activity  of  the  body  is  improved.  The  stout  and  flabby  man 
becomes  thinner,  harder  and  firmer  under  training. 

The  thin  and  spare  man,  on  the  other  hand,  often  becomes  stouter  under 
training.  He  feels  better,  eats  better,  and  his  powers  of  nutrition  are  so  im- 
proved that  he  gains  flesh  and  weight. 


GENERAL  EFFECTS   OF  EXERCISE. 


3* 


Thus  training  may  cause  one  man  to  lose  weight  and  another  to  gain  it, 
and  both  to  look  healthier  and  better  for  the  change. 

>r.  Lagrange  well  expresses  it,  "  Exercise  produces  in  the  system  two 
absolutely  different  effects  :  it  increases  the  process  of  assimilation,  thanks  to 
which  the  body  gains  new  tissues,  and  it  accelerates  the  process  of  dissimila- 
tion, which  leads  to  the  destruction  of  certain  materials."  Its  action  in  the 
former  direction  depends  upon  the  increased  amount  of  oxygen  introduced 
into  the  system  by  the  improved  circulation  and  respiration,  and  by  the 
healthy  stimulation  of  the  various  active  organs  of  the  body. 

The  need  for  exercise  is  felt  as  much  by  thin  people,  who  assimilate  too 
little,  as  by  fat  people,  who  do  not  dissimulate  enough.  Exercise  may  there- 
fore be  regarded  as  a  great  regulator  of  nutrition. 

As  the  action  of  the  heart  rapidly  increases  in  force  and  frequency  during 
exercise,  the  flow  of  blood  through  all  parts  of  the  body  is  increased.  The 
amount  of  increase  is  from  ten  to  thirty  beats,  but  it  may  be  more.  The  skin 
becomes  red  with  the  blood  contained  in  the  full  capillaries,  and  perspiration 
is  much  increased.  The  amount  of  fluid  which  \s  lost  by  the  skin  is  very 
considerable. 

The  digestive  apparatus  is  stimulated  and  strengthened  by  exercise.  The 
appetite  improves,  digestion  is  more  complete,  absorption  more  rapid,  and 
the  circulation  through  the  liver  is  more  vigorous  and  even. 

Muscular  exercises,  especially  such  as  employ  the  muscles  of  the  abdomen, 
have  a  very  beneficial  effect  upon  the  bowels,  promoting  peristaltic  move- 
ments and  relieving  such  constipation  as  depends  upon  the  torpidity  of  the 
intestine. 

One  other  conspicuous  effect  of  exercise  is  the  increased  elimination  of 
carbon.  This  is  eliroin  tted  mainly  by  the  lungs.  The  observations  of  l'et- 
tenkofer  and  Voit  give  the  following  results  : — 


1  via  1    IX. 

Absorpli  "'  Of 
oxygen  in 
grammes. 

1  liminarioa  in  grammei  of 

954-5 

w 
828.0 

[21  |.i 

37-o 

work   day  ( with  ex 

246.6 

-  0.2 

32  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

It  is  demonstrated  that  a  considerable  formation  of  carbonic  acid  takes 
place  in  the  muscles.  As,  moreover,  exercise  is  clearly  necessary  for  a  suf- 
ficient elimination  of  carbon  from  the  body,  it  is  needful,  in  a  condition  of 
prolonged  rest,  that  the  amount  of  carbon  in  the  food  be  lessened  to  avoid  an 
accumulation  of  that  element  in  the  tissues. 

With  regard  to  the  vexed  question  of  the  elimination  of  nitrogen  from  the 
body  during  exercise,  Parkes  concludes  his  careful  examination  of  the  subject 
in  these  words  : — 

"  On  the  whole,  if  I  have  stated  the  facts  correctly,  the  effect  of  exercise  is 
certainly  to  influence  the  elimination  of  nitrogen  by  the  kidneys,  but  within 
various  limits,  and  the  time  of  increase  is  in  the  period  of  rest  succeeding  the 
exercise ;  while  during  the  exercise  period  the  evidence,  though  not  certain, 
points  rather  to  a  lessening  of  the  elimination  of  nitrogen. 

"It  would  appear  from  these  facts  that  well-fed  persons  taking  exercise 
would  require  a  little  more  nitrogen  in  the  food,  and  it  is  certain,  as  a  matter 
of  experience,  that  persons  undergoing  laborious  work  do  take  more  nitro- 
genous food.     This  is  the  case  also  with  animals." 

Dr.  Parkes  thus  sums  up  the  action  of  exercise  upon  the  kidneys  :  "The 
water  of  the  urine  and  the  chloride  of  sodium  often  lessens  in  consequence  of 
the  increased  passage  from  the  skin.  The  urea  is  not  much  changed.  The 
uric  acid  increases  after  great  exertion,  so  also  apparently  the  pigment ;  the 
phosphoric  acid  is  not  augmented  ;  the  sulphuric  acid  is  moderately  increased  ; 
the  free  carbonic  acid  of  the  urine  is  increased  ;  the  chlorides  are  lessened  on 
account  of  the  outflow  by  the  skin ;  the  exact  amount  of  the  bases  has  not 
been  determined,  but  a  greater  excess  of  soda  and  potash  is  eliminated  than 
of  lime  or  magnesia.  Nothing  certain  is  known  as  to  hippuric  acid,  sugar,  or 
other  substances." 

4.  The  Effect  of  Exercise  upon  Personal  Comeliness  and  Comfort. 

We  have  already  noted  the  effect  a  systematic  training  may  have  upon  the 
growth  and  development  of  the  body,  upon  the  size  of  the  chest,  and  the  pro- 
portions of  the  limbs.  Such  training,  moreover,  can  give  an  upright  and 
symmetrical  figure  and  an  easy  and  graceful  carriage.  There  is  a  swing  about 
the  body  and  a  bearing  of  the  head  and  shoulders  which  mark  those  whose 
muscular  system  has  been  fully  developed. 

Under  proper  training  the  shuffling  and  shambling  gait  disappears,  the 
loutish  boy  ceases  to  look  loutish,  and  the  gawky  girl  no  longer  excites  com- 


GENERAL  EFFECTS   OF  EXERCISE.  33 

ment ;    rounded    shoulders  become  square,  and  bending   backs   are   made 
straight. 

The  athlete,  so  far  as  his  body  and  his  personal  equation  are  concerned, 
has  reached  the  full  and  perfect  stature  of  a  man,  and  the  girl  whose  physical 
education  has  been  complete  reaches  her  point  of  physical  perfection  as  a 
woman.  The  beauty  of  the  body  depends  upon  a  fully  formed  skeleton  and 
perfectly  developed  muscles,  and  not  upon  deposits  of  fat.  The  arm  of  a 
plump  but  ill-developed  woman  is  rounded  and  free  from  conspicuous  promi- 
nences about  the  elbow,  but  the  outline  is  as  meaningless  and  as  unnatural  as 
the  part  is  flabby  and  lifeless.  The  arm  of  a  woman  in  perfect  physical  con- 
dition has,  on  the  other  hand,  an  exquisite  outline.  It  presents  the  contour 
given  it  by  the  muscles  that  move  the  limb.  The  graceful  configuration  of 
these  muscles  has  not  been  hidden  beneath  a  monotonous  layer  of  fat.  The 
arm  has  an  individuality,  and  has  reached  the  perfection  of  its  growth.  The 
beauty  of  the  right  arm  of  many  female  violinists  is  a  matter  of  common 
comment. 

Unfortunately  there  is  comparatively  little  fat  about  joints,  and  the  most 
trying  feature  in  the  feebly  developed  woman  is  a  bony  elbow.  There  are 
masses  of  muscle  about  the  elbow,  and  if  these  are  wasted  the  details  of  the 
skeleton  become  unpleasantly  conspicuous.  If  they  are,  on  the  contrary, 
well-developed,  the  contour  of  the  elbow  becomes  even  and  graceful.  The 
arm  of  an  individual  who  is  not  only  thin,  but  is  also  ill-developed,  is  an  un- 
pleasant spectacle — it  is  a  burlesque  of  a  human  limb. 

In  the  neck  and  the  upper  part  of  the  chest  the  effects  of  a  sound  phj 
training  are  very  conspicuous.     The  long  turkey-like  neck  of  the  ill-developed 
lad   and    the   scraggy  neck  of  the  ill-nurtured  woman  are   familiar  enough. 
They  are  both  unnecessary  disfigurements. 

A  perfectly-shaped  thorax  gives  to  the  human  figure  its  most  striking  feat- 
ure, and  such  a  chest  cannot  be  met  with  among  those  whose  physical  edu- 
cation has  been  quite  neglected.  There  is  little  excuse  for  an  ill-formed 
thorax,  and  yet  at  the  present  day  it  \-  mel  with  on  all  sides  and  in  all  classes 
of  the  community. 

back  of  the  ill-developed  is  characteristic.    The  spinous  processes  of 

the  instead  of  being  sunk  in  a  median  groove  formed  by  the  two 

rtebral  mi  tnd  out  in  the  form  of  an  irregular 

nodulated  ridge.    Tin-  back  looks  feeble,  lifeless,  wasted,  and  there  is  an  air 

muscular]  1  about  it.     It  look-,  poor,  and  yet  it  must  be  owned 


34  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

that  it  is  the  type  of  back  very  commonly  met  with  among  the  favored  classes, 
and  especially  among  the  women. 

The  tissues  of  the  ill-developed  are  flabby,  doughy,  baggy.  They  lack 
elasticity  and  consistence.  The  cheek  of  the  overworked  shop  assistant  who 
gets  no  real  exercise  can  be  seen  to  shake  as  he  walks  along  the  street. 

The  purposeless- looking  extremities  of  those  who  are  physically  uneducated 
are  well  known.  They  have  the  appearance  of  the  limbs  of  individuals  who 
are  recovering  from  serious  illness.  They  are,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  ex- 
tremities of  persons  who  have  never  been  well. 

The  tissues  of  the  well-developed  are  firm,  elastic,  resisting,  active,  and  full 
of  evidence  of  living.  There  is  given  to  every  part  of  the  surface  of  the 
body  that  rapid  change  in  contour  and  that  indescribable  aspect  of  vigor  and 
soundness  which  are  features  of  a  healthy  and  well-knit  frame. 

In  the  above  comments  I  am  alluding  merely  to  the  results  of  a  systematic 
physical  training,  and  not  to  such  exceptional  results  of  muscular  exercise  as 
produce  professional  gymnasts  and  acrobats. 

Undue  and  unsymmetrical  muscular  development  may  deform  the  body ; 
a  circumstance  well  illustrated  by  some  acrobats,  whose  lower  limbs  are  of 
normal  or  sub-normal  development,  while  their  arms  are  enormous,  their 
shoulders  mountainous  and  uncouth,  their  necks  coarse  and  bullock-like,  and 
the  upper  part  of  the  back  arched  or  bowed.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in 
gymnasts  who  practice  upon  the  trapeze,  horizontal  bar,  and  other  apparatus, 
and  who  have  exclusively  developed  the  muscles  of  the  upper  half  of  the 
trunk. 

The  skin  of  those  who  have  taken  pains  to  bring  their  bodies  to  perfection 
often  compares  in  a  marked  manner  with  the  integument  of  the  neglected 
and  uneducated.  It  is  firm,  clear,  and  wholesome.  It  is  not  to  be  argued 
that  exercise  will  keep  the  integument  free  from  marks  and  blotches,  and  ren- 
der a  naturally  coarse  skin  fine,  but  it  will  bring  about  such  differences  in  ap- 
pearance as  serve  to  distinguish  what  is  healthy  from  what  is  unsound.  The 
delicate  and  sensitive  complexion  of  a  young  woman  whose  physical  training 
has  been  efficient  is  in  conspicuous  contrast  with  the  dull,  loose,  lustreless  in- 
tegument of  the  abstainer  from  muscular  pursuits.  The  skin  of  the  recluse 
is  grey,  greasy,  and  unpleasant-looking.  The  complexion  of  the  young  man 
about  town  is  almost  distinctive.  It  is  aggressively  unwholesome,  and  forms 
a  contrast  with  that  of  his  companion  who  has  just  returned  from  a  shooting 
expedition  or  a  long  boating  tour.     Exercise,  of  course,  involves  more  living 


GENERAL  EFFECTS   OF  EXERCISE.  35 

in  the  open,  a  freer  and  deeper  respiration,  and  the  coursing  of  a  more  vig- 
orous flow  of  blood  through  the  integuments ;  it  leads  actually  to  a  sounder 
state  of  the  general  health,  and  such  improvement  is  at  once  evident  upon 
the  skin.  There  is  a  certain  brightness  and  vivacity  of  the  look,  and  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  self-assertion  in  the  carriage,  of  those  who  are  in  sound  phys- 
ical condition.  They  contrast  with  the  wan,  hopeless-looking  creatures  who 
never  "stir  out  of  the  house,"  and  who  crawl  through  life  in  a  semi-apologetic 
manner. 

In  the  matter  of  personal  comfort  no  greater  sense  of  pure  pleasure  can 
influence  the  human  mind  than  that  which  results  from  perfect  health.  There 
is  the  glorious  delight  of  movement  and  of  vigorous  activity,  quite  apart  from 
the  excitement  and  mental  enjoyment  which  attend  so  many  recreations  and 
outdoor  sports.  The  lad  who  is  in  perfect  physical  condition  wakes  up  in  the 
morning,  fresh  and  rampant ;  and  if  it  be  the  summer  time  he  probably  feels 
an  irresistible  impulse  to  dash  out  into  the  open  air  and  fill  his  lungs  and 
quicken  his  pulse  and  move  his  muscles.  Even  the  fatigue  that  comes  over  a 
man  who  is  in  good  condition,  and  who  has  taken  a  long  spell  at  exercise,  is 
pleasurable.  Such  a  one  eats  well  and  digests  well ;  the  functions  of  his 
body  are  carried  on  normally,  and  he  experiences  to  its  full  the  delight  of 
living. 

The  youth  who  takes  no  exercise,  who  is  always  poring  over  his  books, 
misses  at  least  one-half  of  the  enjoyments  which  are  available  to  man  during 
a  comparatively  short  life.  He  is  a  dull  creature,  dyspeptic  probably,  the 
subject  of  headaches,  constipation,  and  many  minor  ills.  To  him  joy  cometh 
not  in  the  morning,  and  in  the  place  of  an  honest  fatigue  he  has  the  "fidgets" 
and  his  weariness  is  painful.  His  appetite  is  feeble  possibly,  his  circulation 
is  poor,  and  very  often  he  sleeps  badly,  and  can  envy  the  easy  and  profound 
sleep  of  a  companion  who  has  come  home  after  a  long  run  across  country. 
The  simplest,  the  purest,  and  the  pleasantest  recollections  in  life  usually  go 
ba<  k  to  certain  ph)  ri<  J  enjoyments  in  the  open  air,  to  some  walking  tour  or 
cricket  match,  to  some  river  expedition,  or  to  some  great  day  upon  the 
moors. 

When  sudden  exercise  is  forced  upon  the  undeveloped  individual,  he  is 
more  01  l<  w  unable  to  meet  it  ;  he  becomes  breathless,  perspires  violently,  is 
un<  ertain  of  himself,  Is  1  lumsy  and  the  subsequenl  victim  of  a  painful  degree 

tig  :e.      1  )f  such  a  person  it  cannot  be  said — 

1.  tlii-.  in  bim  was  the  peculiar  gn 
I  hat  before  living  be  learned  bow  to  Bve. 


36  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

5.  The  Mental  and  Moral  Effects  of  Exercise. 

Moderate,  regular,  and  systematic  exercise  by  stimulating  the  circulation 
of  the  body  improves  also  the  circulation  of  the  brain,  and  is  therefore  an 
aid  to  cerebral  movements.  It  improves  the  health  and  the  physical  strength, 
and  so  increases  the  capability  of  the  individual  for  mental  work  and  for  the 
physical  strain  incident  upon  mental  concentration. 

By  organizing  in  the  brain  a  series  of  muscular  movements,  by  elaborating 
the  powers  of  co-ordination,  and  by  establishing  automatism  in  a  large  and 
varied  series  of  actions,  it  saves  actual  brain-work  and  renders  a  considerable 
number  of  movements  independent  of  the  direct  action  of  the  will. 

It  offers,  too,  an  admirable  change  of  employment.  There  is  no  better 
rest  from  severe  mental  work  than  well-selected  bodily  exercise.  With  many 
men  to  lie  upon  a  beach  and  throw  stones  into  the  water  is  no  rest.  They 
would  find  a  more  complete  repose  in  the  pleasurable  use  of  their  muscles, 
in  the  pursuit  of  some  congenial  outdoor  sport,  and  in  rendering  dormant 
the  energies  of  one  part  of  the  nervous  system  by  an  engrossing  employment 
of  another  part. 

Such  exercises  as  are  indulged  in  when  seeking  rest  from  mental  work  must 
be  simple,  and  so  far  as  possible,  such  as  are  automatically  performed. 

"Prescribe  fencing,  gymnastics  with  apparatus,  and  lessons  in  a  riding 
school,"  writes  Dr.  Lagrange,  "to  all  those  idle  persons  whose  brain  languishes 
for  want  of  work.  The  effort  of  will  and  the  work  of  co-ordination  which 
these  exercises  demand  will  give  a  salutary  stimulus  to  the  torpid  cerebral  cells. 
But  for  a  child  overworked  at  school,  for  a  person  whose  nerve-centres  are  con- 
gested owing  to  persistent  mental  effort  in  preparing  for  an  examination,  for 
such  we  must  prescribe  long  walks,  the  easily  learnt  exercise  of  rowing,  and 
failing,  better  the  old  game  of  leap-frog  and  prisoners'  base,  running  games — 
anything,  in  fact,  rather  than  difficult  exercises  and  acrobatic  gymnastics." 

"Mr.  Charles  Paget,  at  one  time  M.  P.  for  Nottingham,  tried  in  the  village 
school  on  his  estate  at  Ruddington  a  very  interesting  experiment.  He  was 
not  satisfied  with  the  general  progress  made  by  the  boys,  and  he  provided  for 
them  a  large  garden.  The  school  was  then  divided  into  two  sections,  one  of 
which  was  kept  to  the  ordinary  school  work  for  the  ordinary  hours,  the  other 
for  half  of  these  hours  only,  the  rest  of  the  school  time  being  devoted  to  work 
in  the  garden.  At  the  end  of  the  term  the  half-time,  or  gardening  boys,  had 
excelled  the  others  in  every  respect — in  conduct,  in  diligence,  and  in  the 
results  of  study."     ("Health  Exhibition  Manuals,"  vol.  xi.,  p.  327.) 


GENERAL   EFEECTS   OF  EXERCISE.  37 

There  must  be  a  proper  distribution  of  mental  and  physical  work.  Just  as 
"all  work  and  no  play  makes  Jack  a  dull  boy,"  so  all  play  and  no  work  makes 
Jack  a  still  duller  boy. 

An  excessive  and  absorbing  indulgence  in  physical  exercises  is  undoubtedly 
bad.  It  tends  to  make  the  individual  too  much  of  an  animal,  and  to  afford 
neither  time,  opportunity,  nor  suitable  conditions  for  the  development  of  his 
brain.  Under  such  circumstances  even  the  body  tends  to  become  stunted  if 
the  practice  be  commenced  early,  and  the  lad  develops  not  only  an  animal 
look,  but  some  of  the  intellectual  and  emotional  attributes  of  the  animal. 

Still,  on  the  other  hand,  in  these  days  of  cramming  and  intense  competition 
many  a  successful  man  has  to  thank  Providence  for  the  late  recognized  bless- 
ings of  an  idle  youth. 

The  systematic  and  properly  arranged  pursuit  of  physical  exercise  tends  to 
develop  certain  admirable  qualities,  and  notably  those  which  are  so  much 
prized  among  Englishmen,  and  which  are  well  designated  as  "manly." 

These  qualities  are  brought  out  in  those  who  are  enthusiasts  in  outdoor 
sports  and  games.  The  football  player  has  done  more  than  merely  develop, 
his  muscles,  the  man  who  has  rowed  in  his  college  eight  has  learnt  something 
beyond  the  mysteries  of  the  sliding  seat,  and  the  experienced  ''player"  at  al- 
most any  outdoor  game  has  been  improved  by  other  means  than  those  which 
the  actual  manoeuvres  of  the  game  demand.  Such  lads  and  men  have  learnt 
in  a  school  where  the  principles  of  pluck,  courage,  endurance,  and  self- 
nce  arc  acquired.  They  have  probably  learnt  to  be  ready,  to  be  quick  of 
eye  and  hand,  and  prompt  in  judgment.  They  may  have  appreciated  the 
value  of  discipline  and  of  self-control.  They  may  have  felt  the  inspiration  of 
the  chivalry  of  days  gone  by,  and  have  experienced  the  influences  of  good 
fellowship  and  lo)  ideship.    They  may  have  learnt  what  it  is  to  be 

ent,  to  be  fair,  to  be  unselfish,  and  to  be  true. 

Many  a  man  who  in  later  life  finds  himself  in  >us  strut  would  wish 

for  no  one  better  by  his  side  than  the  lad  who  pulled   behind  him  in  a  racing 

• .      'I  he  <  ries  and  die  cheers  of  the  football  field  must  have  given  heart  to 

man}'  a  desperate  toldier  when  hard  pressed  in  the  turmoil  of  actual  war,  and 

racioUS  thing  of  his  mate  than  that  lie  is  "a  man  to 
stand  by  you  in  a  g  lie." 

a   (  i  rt  ii:i    moral    effect    also  which   I  1   a   sound   p! 

training,     li  remost  in  athletic  exercises  will  probably 

I   to  be  more  open,  more  straightforward,  more  simple,  and  n 


38  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

wholesome-minded  than  the  lad  who  spends  his  time  loafing  at  the  pastry- 
cook's. Mr.  Cathcart  in  his  "Health  Lectures"  (Edinburgh,  1884,)  brings 
this  point  well  forward  in  the  evidence  he  quotes  from  certain  head- masters 
of  large  public  schools  in  England.  One  head-master  writes  :  "The  worst 
boys  intellectually,  physically  and  morally,  are  the  loafers,"  and  another : 
"The  boys  who  work  hard  and  play  hard  do  not  ape  the  vices  of  men,  and 
are  free  from  the  insidious  evils  that  often  fasten  on  unoccupied  boyhood." 

I  think  it  may  be  safely  said  that  that  miserable  creature,  the  juvenile 
sexual  hypochondriac,  is  never  to  be  found  among  those  who  are  foremost  at 
athletics  and  outdoor  games. 

FATIGUE. 

This  subject  will  be  considered  under  the  following  heads:  1.  Breathless- 
ness; 2.  Muscular  Fatigue  ;  3.  Muscular  Stiffness ;  4.  General  Fatigue. 

1.  Breathlessness. 
The  breathlessness  which  is  a  familiar  attendant  upon  exercises  of  a  certain 
character  has  received  but  little  notice  at  the  hands  of  physiologists.  Dr.  La- 
grange has  in  his  recent  work,  to  which  allusion  has  been  already  made, 
dealt  very  fully  with  the  subject,  and  explains  it  by  a  theory  which  appears  to 
be  both  sound  and  satisfactory.  The  phenomena  of  breathlessness  are  familiar 
enough.  One  has  but  to  picture  a  man  of  middle  age,  who  is  out  of  training, 
and  who  has  set  himself  the  task  of  running  a  certain  distance.  He  soon  feels 
embarrassed  in  his  breathing ;  he  pants,  his  respiratory  movements  become 
jerky  and  irregular ;  he  is  aware  of  a  terrible  sense  of  oppression  in  his  chest, 
a  sense  which  increases  with  each  step.  LTis  head  throbs ;  he  begins  to  find 
that  his  strength  is  failing  him  ;  he  feels  that  he  could  run  many  more  yards, 
so  far  as  his  legs  are  concerned,  but  the  sense  of  suffocation  arrests  him.  He 
staggers  along,  his  steps  become  uncertain,  his  face  haggard,  his  movements 
irregular,  and  he  stops  at  last  dead  beat.  As  he  rests  he  continues  for  many 
minutes  to  breathe  in  the  same  troubled  way.  The  man  is  said  to  be  "blown," 
to  have  "lost  his  wind."  He  has  used  his  legs,  but  his  legs  have  not  given 
way.  It  is  his  chest  which  has  failed  him.  This  constitutes  the  remarkable 
feature  of  the  phenomenon.  The  same  man  can  exercise  his  arms  with  dumb- 
bells for  three  times  the  time  occupied  by  the  run,  yet  he  is  not  "out  of 
breath."  He  can  row  for  ten  miles  without  being  inconvenienced,  but  he 
cannot  run  up  two  flights  of  steep  stairs  without  being  rendered  quite  breath- 
less.    The  more  athletic  the  man,  the  better  condition  of  training  he  is  in,  the 


FATIGUE.  39 

more  practice  he  has  had,  the  less  breathless  he  becomes ;  but  the  most  per- 
fect athlete,  even  when  in  his  prime,  can  soon  "pump  himself  out  "  if  he  tries. 

Dr.  Lagrange  offers  the  following  explanation  of  the  phenomenon  : 

Breathlessness  is  a  form  of  dyspnoea  due  to  an  excess  of  carbon  dioxide  in 
the  blood.  The  excess  of  this  gas  leads  to  an  increase  of  the  respiratory 
need.  The  condition  may  be  spoken  of  as  auto-intoxication  of  the  body  by 
one  of  its  own  products  of  dissimilation — carbon  dioxide. 

This  excess  of  carbonic  acid  is  produced  by  muscular  work.  It  is  a  con- 
spicuous product  of  such  work,  and  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  muscles 
form  at  least  half  the  weight  of  the  entire  body.  The  larger  the  muscles 
employed,  and  the  more  vigorous  their  action,  the  greater  is  the  amount  of 
the  gas  produced.  The  intensity  of  breathlessness  during  exercise  is  in 
direct  proportion  to  the  expenditure  of  force  demanded  in  a  given  time. 
Running  involves  rapid  contractions  of  the  great  mass  of  muscles  forming  the 
lower  extremities.  It  induces  breathlessness  quicker  than  does  moderate 
rowing,  where  the  muscular  expenditure  in  a  given  time  is  much  less.  "The 
quantity  of  carbonic  acid,"  writes  Dr.  Lagrange,  "produced  by  a  group  of 
muscles  in  a  given  time  is  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  work  they  do. 
Further,  the  work  which  a  group  of  muscles  is  able  to  do  without  fatigue  is  in 
direct  ratio  to  the  power,  that  is,  to  the  number  and  size  of  the  muscles 
forming  this  group.  If,  then,  an  exercise  is  localized  in  a  very  small  group 
of  muscles,  fatigue  will  ensue  before  a  large  quantity  of  work  has  been  done, 
and  before  a  large  dose  of  carbonic  acid  has  been  poured  into  the  blood. 
The  eliminating  power  of  the  lungs  will  exceed  the  power  for  work  of  the 
active  muscles  ;  muscular  fatigue  will  precede  breathlessness.  If,  on  the 
other  band,  the  i  t    in  action  are  very  numerous  and  very  powerful, 

they  will  be  able  before  being  fatigued  to  perform  a  large  quantity  of  work, 
and  consequently  to  produce  a  very  large  dose  of  carbonic  acid.  Their  power 
for  work  will  exceed  the  eliminating  power  of  the   lungB.      Breatl  will 

this  time  precede  fatigue." 

It  is  said  thai  "  trots  with  its  1  g  illops  with  its  lungs."    The 

opofa  b(  he  slowed   down  until  the  animal   falls  behind  another 

horse  which  is  trotting.  Nevertheless,  however  slow  the  gallop  ma)  be,  it 
will  more  quickly  "  pump"  a  horse  than  an  equally  rapid  trot.  Swiftness  of 
movement  does  not  suffice  to  produce  breathlessness  unless  combined  with 
intensity  of  mi  ort. 

In  breathl  i  i-.  QOt  inspiration  which  i^  difficult,  but   expiration.      In 


4o  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

running,  inspiration  is  free,  easy,  deep,  three  times  as  long  as  expiration.    The 
latter,  on  the  other  hand,  is  short,  insufficient,  and  painful. 

It  is  stated  that  in  man  there  is  discharged  in  a  given  time  by  respiration  : 
0.35  gramme  of  carbonic  acid  during  sleep. 
1.60         "  "  "     while  sitting. 

1.65         "  "  "     while  running. 

As  accessory  causes  of  breathlessness  are  certain  disturbances  in  the  circu- 
lation of  the  blood  and  some  engorgement  of  the  lungs  resulting  therefrom. 
These  changes  are  discussed  by  Dr.  Lagrange  in  the  following  words  : — 

"  The  first  result  of  violent  exercise  is  the  quickening  of  the  blood  current 
and  a  consequent  active  congestion  of  the  lungs.  In  these  exercises  the 
lungs  are  very  quickly  engorged  with  blood,  and  there  is  great  need  for  their 
disembarrasment  by  increasing  the  activity  of  the  blood  current.  The 
movement  of  inspiration  increases  the  velocity  of  the  current  by  a  force  of 
aspiration  which  tends  to  empty  the  over-filled  capillaries.  This  aspiration 
lasts  as  long  as  the  enlargement  of  the  thorax  continues ;  hence  this  move- 
ment is  an  assistance  to  the  breathless  man ;  on  the  other  hand,  as  the 
thorax  is  diminishing  in  size  during  the  expiratory  movement,  the  blood 
current  becomes  slower  and  the  lungs  more  engorged.  Hence  the  discom- 
fort and  the  irresistible  impulse  to  a  prompt  repetition  of  the  inspiratory 
movement." 

"  We  may  say  that  the  lungs  of  the  breathless  man  are  placed  between  two 
different  needs.  On  the  one  hand,  they  have  to  drive  out  carbonic  acid  and 
the  other  products  of  dissimilation,  and  for  this  a  long  expiration  would  be 
necessary  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  they  have  to  free  themselves  from  vascular 
engorgement,  and  therefore  expiration  is  cut  short  to  return  to  inspiration, 
which  helps  the  circulation  through  the  lungs." 

Dr.  Lagrange  divides  breathlessness  into  three  stages,  and  as  he  is  the  only 
writer  who  has  fully  dealt  with  this  subject,  the  matter  cannot  be  better  dis- 
cussed than  in  his  own  words  : — 

"  In  the  first  stage  the  respiratory  movements  are  increased  in  frequency 
and  in  extent.  The  production  of  carbonic  acid  is  increased,  but  the  respira- 
tory energy  being  greater,  there  is  an  equilibrium  between  the  needs  of  the 
organism,  which  demands  a  more  active  elimination  of  this  gas,  and  the 
working  of  the  lungs,  which  is  powerful  enough  to  satisfy  these  needs.  Dur- 
ing a  time  which  varies  much  with  the  individual,  with  his  constitution,  with 
his  resistance  to  fatigue,  and,  above  all,  with  his  power  of  directing  his  respir- 


FATIGUE.  41 

ation,  gained  from  his  respiratory  education,  these  are  only  symptoms  of 
greater  vital  activity,  and  there  are  as  yet  no  signs  of  functional  disturbance, 
no  sensation  which  rises  to  the  degree  of  discomfort.  The  man  has  a  general 
sensation  of  warmth,  some  throbbing  of  the  temples,  and  has  an  animated 
appearance,  flushed,  his  eyes  sparkling,  and  a  general  aspect  of  cheerfulness, 
due  to  the  greater  activity  of  the  circulation  and  the  resulting  active  conges- 
tions. In  a  word,  it  is  the  stage  in  which  exercise  causes  a  greater  intensity 
of  life  without  reaching  the  degree  of  discomfort  or  of  danger. 

"  Here  we  have  the  really  salutary  dose  of  exercise,  the  limits  within  which 
we  must  keep  in  order  that  work  may  cause  us  no  inconvenience.  But  no- 
thing varies  more  with  the  individual  than  the  duration  of  this  inoffensive 
period,  which  is,  in  a  sense,  the  preface  of  breathlessness.  In  some  persons 
it  is  as  long  as  an  hour,  in  others  the  stage  in  which  discomfort  begins  is 
reached  in  a  few  seconds. 

"  If  violent  exercise  be  prolonged,  the  equilibrium  is  soon  broken  between 
the  production  of  carbonic  acid,  which  becomes  more  and  more  abundant, 
and  the  eliminating  power  of  the  lungs,  which  is  insufficient  to  free  the  or- 
ganism from  it.     Respiratory  distress  occurs. 

"  In  the  second  period  the  effects  of  insufficient  respiration  begin  to  show 
themselves,  a  vague  discomfort  is  experienced,  which  is  most  accentuated  in 
the  precordial  region,  but  which  is  rapidly  generalized  throughout  the  body, 
and  notably  affects  the  head.  In  the  chest  there  is  a  feeling  as  if  it  were 
oppressed  by  a  weight,  or  bound  down  by  a  girdle  of  insufficient  air.  In  the 
head  there  ire  clouds  obscuring  sight,  sparks  before  the  eyes,  then  murmurs 
and  ringing  in  the  ears,  and  finally  a  certain  bluntness  of  sensation,  a  certain 
confusion  in  impressions  and  in  ideas.  All  these  disturbances  are  due  to  the 
on  up  hi  t  res  of  an  excess  of  carbonic  acid.     They  indicate 

the  beginning  of  intoxii  ation. 

"  In  the  1  ;<  <■  remarkable  ch  re  to  be  noticed,  which  arc  the  conse- 

nts of  the  respiratory  distress,  and  of  the  efforts  made  to  draw  a  greater 
quantity  of  air  into  the  chest.    The  nostrils  ire  dilated,  the  mouth  and  1 
widely  opened.     !  hej  all  seem  to  be  widely  opened  to  favor  the  entrance  of 
>r  which  the  lungs  so  greatly  need. 

"The  color  of  a  breai  less  man  shows  very  striking  modifications.    At  the 
nning  of  exercise  we  have  laid  that  there  i  don,  more  color  in  the 

.due  to  active  congestion.     But  in  the  second  period  the  picture 
l.\  el)  red  color  ha  •  ind  wan  tint.     1 1 

4 


42  PHYSICAL   EDUCATION. 

is  something  peculiar  about  this  pallor — it  is  not  uniform.  Certain  parts  of 
the  face,  such  as  the  lips  and  the  cheeks,  have  a  violet  blackish  appearance  ; 
the  rest  of  the  face  is  white  and  colorless. 

"  From  the  two  colors,  one  darker  and  the  other  lighter,  there  results  a 
gray,  leaden,  livid  appearance.  The  violet  tint  is  due  to  the  retention  of 
blood  in  the  capillaries,  which  are  losing  their  elasticity,  and  in  which  the  cir- 
culation is  failing.  This  blood,  overcharged  with  carbonic  acid,  has  lost  its 
bright  red  color,  hence  in  the  lips  and  other  more  transparent  parts  of  the 
face  we  see  no  longer  the  ordinary  red  color ;  they  have  the  blackish  color 
characteristic  of  venous  blood. 

"  As  for  the  pallor,  this  is  due  to  a  transient  anaemia,  to  the  emptying  of 
the  arterioles.  The  heart,  the  energy  of  which  diminishes  in  proportion  to 
the  increase  of  the  breathlessness,  does  not  send  forward  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  blood,  and  it  is  easy  to  understand  that  a  part  receiving  less  blood  is  less 
deeply  colored  than  usual. 

"  The  leaden  hue  of  the  face  in  a  breathless  man  indicates  an  already  pro- 
found disturbance  of  the  system.  In  no  case  should  exercise  be  continued 
after  it  comes  on,  for  it  indicates  the  beginning  of  asphyxia. 

"  It  is  at  this  stage  of  breathlessness  that  we  observe  the  very  characteristic 
change  in  the  rhythm  of  respiration  which  has  been  already  described.  The 
ordinary  rhythm  is  lost,  and  the  two  periods  of  respiration  become  unequal. 
The  first  period  increases  and  the  second  diminishes ;  inspiration  becomes 
three  times  as  long  as  expiration.  This  change  in  the  rhythm  of  respiration 
is  an  indication  of  blood  stasis  in  the  capillaries  of  the  lungs.  As  soon  as  it 
occurs  we  can  see  that  the  organism,  its  force  exhausted,  can  no  longer  fight 
to  good  purpose  against  the  poisonous  substance  which  permeates  it.  The 
congested  lungs  eliminate  less  carbonic  acid  than  is  formed  by  the  muscles  at 
work.     Intoxication  is  imminent. 

"  If  exercise  be  continued,  the  gravity  of  the  condition  rapidly  increases. 
We  may  call  the  asphyxial  stage  the  third  phase  of  breathlessness  into  which 
the  organism  passes  under  the  influence  of  forced  exercise. 

"This  third  stage  is  as  follows:  To  the  respiratory  distress  succeeds  a 
sensation  of  anguish  generalized  throughout  the  organism.  The  head  feels  as 
if  bound  by  an  iron  band.  Vertigo  is  very  distressing.  All  sensations  be- 
come more  vague ;  the  brain  is  overcome  by  a  kind  of  drunkenness.  The 
subject  begins  to  become  unconscious  of  what  is  passing,  his  muscles  continue 
to  work  mechanically  for  a  time,  then  they  stop,  and  the  man  falls  in  a  faint. 


FATIGUE.  43 

"  At  this  time  respiration  is  of  a  different  type  to  that  of  the  last  stage  ;  the 
two  periods  are  both  short,  jerky,  occasionally  interrupted  :  with  them  are 
mingled  swallowing  movements  and  hiccough.  The  heart-beat  is  feeble  and 
intermittent.  The  pulse  is  small,  irregular,  and  imperceptible.  When  exer- 
cise is  continued  to  these  extreme  limits  it  is  almost  always  stopped  by  grave 
syncope,  and  unless  prompt  help  be  given  the  syncope  may  be  fatal." 

An  athletic  man  soon  develops  the  art  of  regulating  his  breathing  so  as  to 
reduce  the  degree  of  breathlessness  as  far  as  is  possible.  He  is  aware  that  it 
is  at  first  that  the  trouble  is  intense,  and  that  in  time  he  can  adjust  the  diffi- 
culty a  little.  The  runner  speaks  of  getting  "  his  second  wind."  He  has 
passed  through  a  period  of  breathlessness  in  which  excitement,  sudden  move- 
ment, and  unnecessary  extreme  muscular  contractions  possibly  have  played 
some  part ;  he  then  settles  down  to  his  work,  he  uses  his  forces  more 
economically  and  breathes  more  easily  ;  and  it  is  common  to  hear  a  man  out 
of  condition  explain  the  loss  of  a  race  by  the  fact  that  he  never  got  his 
"second  wind." 

In  sprint  running  the  art  of  controlling  breathlessness  reaches  its  highest 
point,  and  to  some  extent  sprint  running  is  a  test  of  the  respiratory  capacity 
in  this  direction. 

2.  Muscular  Fatigue. 

If  a  m;in  in  sound  health  hold  out  his  arm  at  right  angles  to  his  body  he 
experiences,  in  a  time  which  varies  according  to  his  physical  condition,  so 
much  inconvenience  in  the  muscles  involved  that  he  is  at  hist  compelled  t>> 
drop  the  limb.  If  he  exercise  his  will  to  the  utmost  he  may  prolong  the 
>f  extension,  but  a  time  soon  comes  when  by  no  possible  effort  can 
he  continue  to  hold  out  the  extremity. 

The  muscles  in  question  are  said  to  be  fatigued. 

The  fatigue  is  termed  relative  because,  if  a  proper  electric  current  be 
applied  to  the  muscles  as  soon  as  the  limb  is  dropped  as  helpless,  the  muscles 
again  contract,  and  the  hand  is  once  more  lifted. 

If  the  muscles  of  an  animal  be  subjected  to  an  elc<  tri<  current,  they  con- 
■  iting  tii--  application  they  i  ontt  id  again  and  ag  tin.    The  con* 
.  however,  become  feebler,  and  are  in  time  ultimately  abolished. 
The  parts  are  in  the  condition  of  relative  fatigue. 

Il    now   a    sir  irnt    be  employed,  tin-    muscles   again   contract,  and 

again  in  time  lose  their  power.    The  experiment  can  be  continued  with  a 
current  until  finally  the  must  lea  <  annot  be  made  to  contract  by  any 

current  or  any  stimulus  of  any  kind. 


44  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

They  have  reached  the  state  of  absolute  fatigue. 

Local  fatigue  of  muscle  is  explained  by  the  following  conditions  : 

i.  The  actual  power  or  function  of  the  muscle  is  exhausted.  This  con- 
dition has  been  termed  "  dynamic  exhaustion,"  and  is  parallel  to  the  exhaus- 
tion which  is  noticed  in  certain  reflex  acts  when  they  are  indefinitely  excited, 
and  to  the  exhaustion  of  the  retina  to  certain  rays  when  one  color  is  contem- 
plated for  too  long  a  time. 

The  functional  power  of  a  muscle  is  placed  within  definite  limits,  and  in 
fatigue  that  limit  is  reached.  This  exhaustion  is  modified  by  the  strength  of 
the  muscle,  by  its  local  condition,  by  the  practice  it  has  been  subjected  to, 
and  by  the  nerve  condition  of  the  individual. 

2.  In  fatigue,  nerve  exhaustion  is  largely  concerned.  This  especially 
applies  to  complicated  acts,  the  repetition  of  which  involves  a  special  and 
definite  effort  of  the  will. 

The  comparative  absence  of  exhaustion  in  the  incessant  movements  in 
chorea  is  explained  by  the  circumstance  that  in  these  movements  a  voluntary 
nerve  mechanism  is  not  concerned.  Dr.  Lagrange  lays  down  the  axiom  that, 
"  the  muscular  work  being  equal,  the  sensation  of  fatigue  is  the  more  intense 
the  more  active  the  intervention  of  the  cerebral  faculties  demanded  by  the 
exercise." 

3.  Some  local  effect  may  be  exercised  upon  the  muscle  by  the  products  of 
combustion  or  dissimilation  which  are  developed  within  its  tissues,  and 
which,  not  being  got  rid  of  in  time  enough,  accumulate  in  excess. 

"  If,"  writes  Dr.  Langrange,  "  we  submit  the  muscles  of  a  frog  to  the  action 
of  a  powerful  electric  stimulus,  and  prolong  this  action  until  fatigue  is  com- 
plete, that  is,  till  the  limbs  of  the  animal  remain  motionless  under  the  most 
powerful  stimulation,  we  shall  have  in  the  fatigued  muscles  the  elements 
necessary  for  a  most  curious  experiment.  Their  substance  rubbed  in  a  mor- 
tar and  made  into  a  fine  soup  contains  a  principle  capable  of  producing  in 
healthy  muscle  at  rest  the  fatigue  which  had  exhausted  the  first  muscles.  If 
we  inject  into  a  second  frog  this  extract  of  fatigued  muscles,  we  bring  about 
in  this  animal  all  the  phenomena  of  fatigue,  and  its  limbs  will  fail  to  respond 
to  electric  stimuli." 

The  possible  character  of  this  local  effect  is  thus  dealt  with  by  Landois  in 
his  well  known  "  Text-book  of  Physiology"  (translated  by  Stirling).  The 
cause  of  local  muscular  fatigue  "  is  probably  partly  due  to  the  accumulation 
of  decomposition  products — '  fatigue  stuffs  ' — in  the  muscular  tissues,  these 


FATIGUE.  45 

products  being  formed  within  the  muscle  itself  during  its  activity.  They  are 
phosphoric  acid,  either  free  or  in  the  form  of  acid  phosphates,  acid  potassium 
phosphate,  glycerin-phosphoric  acid(?),  and  carbonic  acid.  If  these  sub- 
stances be  removed  from  a  muscle  by  passing  through  its  blood-vessels  an 
indifferent  solution  of  common  salt  .  .  .  the  muscle  again  becomes  capable 
of  energizing." 

Dr.  Lagrange  gives  a  more  detailed  account  of  these  tissue  changes,  and  in 
adding  his  account  it  is  necessary  to  say  that  his  statements  are  not  entirely 
in  accord  with  the  teaching  of  most  physiologists. 

"  Muscles  which  have  worked  to  excess  have  undergone  a  change  in  their 
chemical  composition.  Alkaline  in  a  state  of  repose,  they  have  become  acid  ; 
they  contain  lactic  acid,  which  was  not  present  before  work  ;  they  contain 
less  oxygen  and  more  carbonic  acid  than  when  at  rest.  Numerous  nitrogen- 
ous materials  resulting  from  the  combustion  of  muscular  tissues  are  consider- 
ably increased.  These  substances,  of  which  the  last  stage  of  combustion  is 
urea,  form  a  series  of  bodies  only  differing  in  containing  more  or  less  oxygen, 
and  being  consequently  at  a  different  degree  of  oxidation  or  combustion.  All 
authors  enumerate  amongst  them  kreatin,  hypoxanthin,  inosite,  etc.,  and 
finally  the  best  known  one,  and  the  most  interesting  because  of  the  part  it 
plays  in  the  production  of  gout,  uric  acid." 

4.  It  is  possible  also  that  some  actual  lesion,  such  as  that  attending  the 
compression  of  nerves,  may  occur  in  a  fatigued  muscle,  and  may  serve  to 
partly  explain  the  tenderness  of  the  over-used  structure  and  to  establish  a 
condition  akin  to  that  produced  by  the  violent  and  irregular  contractions  of 
cramp. 

3.  Muscular  Stiffness. 

1  iciated  with  local  fatigue,  with  the  over-use  of  muscle,  is 
stiffness.  This  is  a  common  but  not  a  necessary  accompaniment  of  the  over- 
work. 

\   rowing  man  who  is  entirely  out  of  condition,  and  who  has  taken  no 
n  ise  for  months,  is  asked  to  fill  up  a   place  in  a  racing  four  for  a  short 
"practice."     He   funis   the   exertion   a   terrible  strain;   he  soon  becomes 
bre  ithless,  his  limbs  a<  he,  his  head  throbs,  every  limb  seems  out  ^  condition, 
and  he  is  scon  exhausted.     Eie  does  his  best  through  tl  tpin,  but  next 

day  he  .11  hes  all  over ;  he  is  stiff ;  he  reels  as  if  he  had  been  beaten  :  he  can- 
not  move  without  some  pain,  nor  <  m  he  grasp  any  part  of  his  body  without 
ering  some  tendero 


46  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

In  a  day  or  so  the  unpleasant  condition  passes  off.  This  very  man  may 
have  rowed  many  races  without  experiencing  a  trace  of  stiffness.  He  may 
have  gone  through  three  times  the  amount  of  exertion  without  any  but 
momentary  inconvenience.  The  difference  has  been  simply  this :  at  one 
time  he  was  in  practice  and  in  condition,  at  the  other  time  he  was  both  out 
of  practice  and  out  of  condition. 

The  intensity  of  the  stiffness  is  not  always  proportionate  to  the  immediate 
fatigue,  nor  is  the  extent  of  the  exercise  a  measure  of  the  stiffness  which  may 
result. 

Stiffness  depends  rather  upon  the  condition  of  the  individual  than  upon 
the  character  or  amount  of  the  muscular  work  done.  Muscles  may  be 
fatigued  without  afterwards  becoming  stiff. 

The  local  symptoms  of  stiffness  probably  depend  upon  an  exaggeration  of 
those  conditions  in  the  muscles  which  are  supposed  to  underlie  local  fatigue, 
and  notably  to  the  retention  in  the  tissues  of  the  products  of  combustion. 

These  local  changes  have  already  been  described. 

4.  General  Fatigue. 

The  general  disturbances  which  may  accompany  muscular  exhaustion  and 
which  are  present  in  some  degree  in  such  fatigue  as  is  attended  by  stiffness 
are  of  very  varying  character. 

The  individual  may  be  left  simply  exhausted,  "  tired  out,"  listless,  and  to 
some  extent  prostrate. 

In  more  advanced  degrees  he  complains  of  heaviness  in  the  head,  of  utter 
feebleness,  of  inability  to  take  food,  and  of  painful  weariness  and  restlessness, 
followed  by  want  of  sleep. 

In  other  and  still  more  pronounced  cases  he  may  exhibit  febrile  phenomena, 
and  present  the  condition  described  as  the  "  fever  of  over-exertion."  This 
fever  may  be  attended  with  such  malaise  and  with  such  nerve  disturbances  as 
to  be  mistaken  for  the  early  period  of  an  infective  fever. 

This  condition  has  been  elaborately  considered  by  Dr.  Knott,  of  Dublin,  in 
his  excellent  monograph  on  "The  Fever  of  Over-exertion"  (Dublin,  18S8). 
He  takes  the  case  of  a  greatly  overworked  farm  laborer.  The  symptoms  may 
or  may  not  commence  with  a  rigor.  The  patient's  temperature  runs  up 
rapidly,  even  to  1030  F.  or  1040  F.  within  a  few  hours,  and  this  change  is 
accompanied  by  the  general  symptoms  of  malaise,  congested  face,  thirst,  loss 
of  appetite,  etc.     He  sometimes  takes  a  day  or  two  of  rest,  when,  feeling  a 


FATIGUE.  47 

little  better,  he  makes  a  desperate  effort  to  go  back  to  work,  although  still 
suffering  from  the  same  symptoms  in  a  slighter  degree.  His  efforts  are  now 
necessarily  less  vigorous,  but  he  does  enough  to  feed  the  slow  fire  of  febrile 
combustion  which  has  been  already  kindled  in  his  muscles. 

The  temperature  maintains  a  standard  of  about  ioi°or  so;  the  pulse  is 
permanently  quickened  ;  thirst,  constipation,  loss  of  appetite,  and  loaded  urine 
continue. 

In  such  cases,  when  the  pernicious  attempts  at  manual  exertion  are  con- 
tinued for  a  number  of  days,  the  unhappy  individual  afterwards  fails  to  re- 
cover. Gradual  wasting  goes  on ;  the  pulse  maintains  its  frequency  and 
becomes  weaker,  the  strength  by  degrees  fails,  the  patient  is  obliged  to  take 
to  bed ;  the  fever  tends,  after  some  months,  to  assume  a  hectic  type.  In- 
creasing emaciation  is  marked,  and  the  patient  not  very  rarely  falls  a  victim 
to  some  intercurrent  disease. 

1  >r.  Knott  ascribes  the  phenomena  to  the  throwing  into  the  circulation  of 
a  greatly  disproportionate  quantity  of  the  products  of  muscular  waste.  These, 
he  maintains,  lead  to  an  overthrow  of  the  governing  powers  of  the  thermo- 
toxic  nerve  centre,  or,  in  other  words,  are  the  substantial  cause  of  the  fever. 
He  considers  that  urea  and  uric  acid  represent  the  most  important  of  these 
products. 

I  >r.  Lagrange  supports  the  same  view,  and  contends  that  the  marked  con- 
stitutional disturbances  which  may  follow  upon  severe  muscular  exercise  are 
all  due  to  the  accumulation  in  the  circulation  of  a  large  excess  of  the  chemical 
products  of  muscular  waste,  to  a  species  of  self-infection  by  the  excess  of 
combustion  products  developed  in  the  muscles.  He  also  considers  that  these 
products  ly  represented  by  urea  and  allied  compounds. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  a  degree  of  fatigue  Leading  to  muscular  stiffness, 
but  not  necessarily  to  the  constitutional  symptoms  named,  will  be  attended 

by  a  deposit  of  urates  in  the  urine.  This  may  be  quite  independent  ol  any 
fever. 

e  who  pursue   athl  ■■■    II  ..ware  of  I  ition  "I    a 

deposit  in  the  urine  with  the  appearance  of  stiffness.  In  a  man  out  of  con- 
dition the  tissue  waste  induced  during  unwonted  ex  •  iderable. 
(Tord  abundanl  material  for  the  n  >".>tions. 
'I  be  nutritive  i  ondition  of  his  muscles  is  comparatively  low.  In  an  athlete  in 
training,  on  the  other  hand,  the  don  is  not  in 
!                                              f  all  superfluous  matter.    Thenutri- 


48  PHYSICAL   EDUCATION. 

tive  state  of  the  muscles  is  in  the  best  possible  condition,  and  the  circum- 
stances which  favor  the  development  of  a  great  deposit  of  urates  is  not  forth- 
coming. 

EFFECTS  OF  EXCESSIVE  OR  UNSUITABLE  EXERCISE. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  deal  in  a  separate  section  with  the  ill-effects  of  an 
absence  of  physical  exercise  upon  the  body.  The  matter  has  been  considered 
in  such  of  the  foregoing  paragraphs  as  are  concerned  in  the  general  effect  of 
muscular  exercise. 

In  estimating  the  actual  value  of  the  work  done  in  any  physical  pursuit,  or 
in  attempting  to  express  what  is  meant  by  "  excessive  "  or  "  unsuitable  "  in 
relation  with  muscular  labor,  I  have  been  unable  to  make  any  use  of  the  phy- 
siological method  of  measuring  work  by  "foot-tons."  This  mode  of  measure- 
ment is  no  doubt  of  value  to  the  physiologist,  but  to  those  concerned  in 
physical  education  it  is  practically  useless.  Many  of  the  results  do  not 
accord  with  what  would  be  inferred  from  practical  experience,  nor  can  they 
be  put  to  any  practical  use.  The  amount  of  muscular  expenditure  incurred 
in  rowing  one  mile  at  racing  speed  is  said  to  be  represented  by  18.56  foot- 
tons.  But  walking  a  mile  at  an  ordinary  pace  causes  an  expenditure  of  17.67 
foot-tons,  from  which  it  must  be  inferred  that  there  is  very  little  difference 
between  these  two  forms  of  exercise,  so  far  as  the  use  of  the  muscles  is  con- 
cerned. Those  who  are  interested  in  athletic  matters  would  not  be  able  to 
recognize  the  correctness  nor  the  value  of  these  estimates,  especially  when 
they  are  compared  with  one  another.  Even  when  every  allowance  is  made 
for  the  quickness  of  the  stroke  and  the  breathlessness  induced  by  rowing  at  a 
racing  pace,  yet  still  it  would  be  urged  that  the  actual  output  of  muscular 
force  would  be  represented  by  a  different  figure  when  such  exercise  is  com- 
pared with  the  walking  of  one  mile. 

Rowing  six  miles  at  racing  speed  would,  upon  the  same  estimate,  be  re- 
presented by  1 1 1.36  foot-tons,  while  walking  the  same  distance  would  be 
expressed  by  106.02  foot-tons — a  result  which  makes  the  comparison  still 
more  marked. 

So  far  as  the  present  purpose  of  this  paper  is  concerned,  the  terms  "  ex- 
cessive exercise  "  and  "  unsuitable  exercise  "  must  be  considered  relatively, 
and  with  reference  rather  to  the  individual  than  to  the  actual  physiological 
amount  of  muscular  work  expended. 

What  may  be  excessive  or  unsuitable  exercise  to  one  man  may  be  moderate 
and  quite  excellent  exercise  to  another. 


EFFECTS   OF  EXCESSIVE  EXERCISE.  49 

In  considering  the  phenomena  of  fatigue  and  the  effects  of  any  given 
exertion,  the  estimate  must  be  based  upon  the  condition  of  the  individual 
rather  than  upon  the  actual  character  of  the  work  carried  out.  In  this  matter 
the  age  and  bodily  development  of  the  man,  the  state  of  his  general  health, 
and  the  scope  and  extent  of  his  muscular  education,  play  prominent  and 
essential  parts. 

The  effects  which  may  follow  upon  excessive  or  unsuitable  exercise,  or  upon 
exercise  which,  from  the  point  of  view  of  him  who  practices  it,  may  be  termed 
violent  on  the  one  hand  and  rash  on  the  other,  are  very  varied. 

We  have  seen  in  the  sections  on  breathlessness  and  on  general  fatigue  what 
results  may  follow  after  severe  exertion,  so  far  especially  as  the  respiratory 
functions  and  the  general  state  of  the  body  are  concerned. 

A  sprint  runner  may  fall  senseless  upon  the  path,  succumbing  to  the  results 
of  his  breathlessness. 

A  boy  may  remain  completely  "knocked  up"  for  several  days  after  a 
paper-chase,  and  may  be  really  ill  and  exhibit  the  febrile  phenomena  which 
have  been  already  described. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  in  not  a  few  instances  the  pursuit  of  violent  and  ex- 
treme exercise  has  led  to  results  which  have  had  a  permanent  effect  upon  the 
health  of  the  individual.  In  some  cases  an  actual  organic  lesion  has  been 
produced;  in  others  the  body  has  been  placed  in  a  condition  favorable  for 
the  development  of  disease  ;  in  a  third  series  of  instances  there  supervenes 
merely  a  feebler  state  of  health. 

The  children  of  tubercular  parents  have  acquired  a  spinal  caries,  or  a 
I  joint,  as  a  result  of  injuries  received  through  improper  gymnastic 
exen  i 

Children  with  a  weak  muscular  system  have  acquired  a  lateral  curvature  of 
the  spine  through  the  pursuit  of  unsuitable  exercises,  which,  so  fir  as  their 
spinal  mua  les  are  concerned,  h  tve  been  excessive  and  unequal. 

It  may  l>e  true,  as  i-  often  asserted,  that  phthsis  has  appeared  in  those  who 

an-  phthisic  illy  in<  line.  ull  of  the  strain  and  the  exposure  incident  to 

■  exen  i  ses  of  endurance  in  the  open  air. 
Many  Berious  troubles  may  certain!)  be  ascribed  to  acts  of  indiscretion  and 
to  exposure  to  <  old  and  wet  under  trying  1  ircumstances  during  the  pursuit  of 
pl>\  ise  ;  but  such  ills  1  m  sc  ircely  be  laid  at  the  door  of  muscular 

training.    The  att  cute  rheumatism,  which  may  have  followed  a  long 

ting  tour  in  the  1  ite  autumn,  may  more  justly  be  as<  ribed  to  camping  out 
in  the  wet  than  to  the  cMo  t  of  mere  rowing. 


50  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

Quite  apart  from  any  obvious  lesion  or  disease,  not  a  few  individuals 
appear  to  suffer  permanently  in  health  as  the  result  of  some  specific  excess 
in  the  matter  of  exercise.  A  lad  may  "  knock  up"  after  winning  a  three-mile 
race,  and  never  be  fit  for  much  in  the  matter  of  athletics  after  that.  A  man 
of  about  middle  age  may,  with  probable  reason,  date  a  distinct  and  persistent 
decline  in  health  to  some  one  holiday  in  Switzerland,  when  he  did  more  than 
his  age  and  his  condition  justified. 

Many  inferences  of  this  character  may  be  unsound,  but  a  few  appear  to  be 
undoubted. 

On  the  whole;  however,  it  must  be  allowed  that  the  injury  which  may  fol- 
low, and  no  doubt  has  now  and  then  followed,  upon  severe  physical  exertion 
represents  but  a  small  fraction  when  compared  with  the  undoubted  benefits 
which  accrue  from  moderate  and  reasonable  exercise. 

Dr.  John  E.  Morgan,  of  Manchester,  in  a  work  entitled  "  University  Oars  : 
a  Critical  Inquiry  into  the  Health  of  the  Men  who  Rowed  in  the  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  Boatrace,  from  1829  to  1869,"  has  dealt  with  the  effect  of  violent 
exercise,  as  illustrated  by  racing  in  boats,  upon  the  general  health. 

His  evidence  shows  that  such  exercise  is,  in  the  great  majority  of  instances, 
no  other  than  beneficial ;  that  it  is  not  a  cause  of  disease  or  of  premature 
death ;  and  that,  out  of  the  large  number  of  individuals  dealt  with,  in  only 
the  insignificant  proportion  of  6  per  cent,  could  any  permanent  ill  effect 
be  claimed  to  have  followed  the  pursuits  of  earlier  years.  In  most  of  these 
cases  even  the  evidence  that  rowing  was  to  blame  was  indefinite  or  doubtful. 

Mr.  Walter  Rye,  the  well-known  authority  on  cross-country  running,  writes 
thus  :  "We  can  speak  from  an  experience  now  covering  nearly  twenty  years, 
and  can  positively  say  that  we  know  of  no  man  of  the  hundreds  with  whom 
we  have  been  acquainted  who  has  been  injured  by  distance-running,  and  the 
rate  of  mortality  among  running  men  is  singularly  small." 

Similar  evidence  has  been  given  by  others  with  regard  to  forms  of  athletic 
exercise  which  may  be  considered  to  be  violent. 

Certain  specific  effects  which  may  follow  upon  excessive  or  unsuitable  exer- 
cise will  now  be  considered. 

The  Heart  and  Blood-vessels. 

The  heart  has  been  ruptured  during  very  violent  exertion,  as  in  attempting 
to  lift  or  support  an  immense  weight.  This  has  happened  to  men  of  great 
muscular  strength,  but  more  often  to  the  feeble,  the  ill-conditioned  or  the  aged. 


EFFECTS   OF  EXCESSIVE  EXERCISE.  51 

Excessive  exercise  may  lead  also  to  hypertrophy  of  the  heart,  to  dilatation 
of  its  cavities,  and  to  valvular  disease.  The  cases  of  hypertrophy  appear  to 
be  most  usual  in  the  athletic,  and  in  those  whose  employments  involve  constant 
severe  labor — e.  g.,  blacksmiths,  miners,  etc.  In  the  matter  of  dilatation  of 
the  heart,  Dr.  \V.  Osier  writes  (Pepper's  "Medicine,"  vol.  iii.  p.  631)  :  "Over- 
training and  heart-strain  are  closely  connected  with  the  question  of  excessive 
dilatation  during  severe  muscular  effort.  Both  mean  the  same  thing  in  many 
cases.  A  man,  perhaps  not  in  very  good  condition,  calls  upon  his  heart  for 
much  extra  work  during  a  race  or  the  ascent  of  a  very  steep  mountain,  and  is 
seized  with  cardiac  pain  and  a  feeling  of  distension  in  the  epigastrium,  and 
the  rapid  breathing  continues  an  unusual  time,  but  the  symptoms  pass  off 
after  a  night's  quiet.  An  attempt  to  repeat  the  exercise  is  followed  by 
another  attack,  and,  indeed,  an  attack  of  cardiac  dyspnoea  may  come  on 
while  he  is  at  rest.  For  months  such  a  man  may  be  unfitted  for  severe  ex- 
ertion or  may  be  permanently  incapacitated.  He  has  overstrained  his  heart 
and  has  become  broken-winded." 

Haemorrhages  of  various  kinds  have  resulted  from,  or  have  been  ascribed 
to,  violent  exertion,  and  have  been  met  with  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  body. 
Cases  of  cerebral  and  of  spinal  apoplexy  have  occurred  during  extreme  ex- 
ertion, and  Lagrange  mentions  an  instance  in  which  the  spinal  veins  under- 
went rupture  and  led  to  paraplegia. 

Aneurysm. 

The  part  played  by  exercise  in  the  production  of  aneurysm  is  definite,  but 

at   the   same    time  not    necessarily    predominating.      In    addition    to   violent 

movement  come  the  factors  of  actual  injury  to  the  vessel,  constitutional   dis- 

ily  syphilis,  and  the  conditions  which   lead   to  chronic   arteritis. 

The  author  once  saw  a  popliteal  aneurysm  in  an  acrobat  of  twenty-eight, who 
I  health,  and  who  considered  it  had  been  developed  by  the 
ti<  v  of  hanging  by  the  knee,  &  »m  one  trapeze  while  he  caught  his  com- 
panion, who  \.  ing  from  another.      In  thiscase  greal  and  well  localized 

pre  .-.1  up. .n  the  ham.    The  form  of  exercise  which  a] 

be  mosl  effe<  tive  in  the  production  of  aneurysm  is  violent  intermittent  exer- 

.  or  sudden  e\ei<  ise  when  out  of  I  Ondition,  OX  such  actions  as  involve 
movemi  Main  artic  ul.it  1 

,    is    much    more    common    in    men    than    in    women,  and    in   the 
ring   than    in  the   favored  dasse  .      It    1.   noteworthy  that    in   the  etiol 


52  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

of  aneurysm  age  plays  a  conspicuous  part.  Aneurysm  is  not  most  common 
at  the  age  when  violent  physical  exercises  are  most  usually  indulged  in,  but  it 
is  most  frequent  in  individuals  who  have  reached  or  have  passed  middle  life. 
The  occurrence  of  aneurysm  under  these  circumstances  affords  another  argu- 
ment against  the  folly  of  violent  and  extreme  exertion  in  men  who  are  over 
thirty,  especially  when  they  are  out  of  condition. 

Varicose  Veins. 

The  frequently  repeated  statement  that  varicose  veins  in  the  lower  limbs 
are  produced  and  maintained  by  exercise  is  based  upon  very  questionable 
foundations.  It  is  said  upon  equally  questionable  grounds  that  those  who 
indulge  in  running,  bicycling,  riding  or  exercise  involving  long  standing,  are 
in  great  risk  of  developing  varicose  veins.  It  is  quite  true  that  dilated  veins 
are  met  with  among  athletes,  runners  and  bicyclists ;  but  it  has  not  been 
shown  that  the  condition  is  more  common  among  them  than  it  is  with  other 
individuals,  and  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  easy  to  produce  any  number  of  pro- 
fessional runners,  athletes,  gymnasts,  and  others  who  are  constantly  practicing 
the  very  exercises  which  are  said  to  produce  varicose  veins,  and  yet  have  not 
an  enlarged  vein  in  either  of  their  lower  limbs. 

It  is  remarkable,  moreover,  that  varicose  veins  are  so  much  more  common 
among  women  than  among  men,  and  that  they  are  very  often  met  with  in 
women  who  take  little  or  no  exercise.  There  is,  in  fact,  evidence  to  show 
that  exercise  has  little  if  anything  to  do  with  the  production  of  the  disease ; 
that  the  trouble  is  due  to  certain  congenital  defects  in  the  vessels  them- 
selves, and  that  when  such  defect  does  exist,  muscular  exertion  may  tend  to 
increase  the  abnormal  condition.  This  view  is  very  strongly  insisted  upon 
by  Mr.  Bennett  in  his  elaborate  monograph  upon  "Varicose  Veins"  (London, 
1889).  He  shows  that  there  is  a  distinct  hereditary  history  in  more  than 
50  per  cent,  of  the  cases.  His  cases  prove  that  the  trouble  occurs  in  the 
active  and  the  sedentary,  in  the  weak  and  the  strong,  in  the  short  and  the 
tall.  In  females  pregnancy  and  constipation  play  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
etiology.  Bennett  is  unable  to  connect  the  occupation  of  the  patient  in  any 
definite  degree  with  the  actual  production  of  the  disease.  While  exercise 
probably  has  nothing  to  do  with  originating  varices,  it  certainly  tends  to 
increase  the  trouble  when  it  exists.  Running,  walking,  jumping,  cycling, 
and  forms  of  exercise  and  recreation  involving  long  standing,  are  noteworthy 
in  their  ill  effects  upon  varicose  veins.     Indulgence  in  these  exercises  would 


EFFECTS   OF  EXCESSIVE  EXERCISE.  53 

be  unwise  for  those  who  are  the  actual  subjects  of  the  disease,  but  the  fear 
of  enlarged  veins  should  never  be  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of  a  free  pursuit  of 
the  sports  mentioned,  nor  can  the  possibility  of  varicose  veins  be  legitimately 
urged  as  an  argument  against  these  sports. 

The  Lungs. 

Haemoptysis  and  emphysema  are  stated  to  have  been  produced  by  violent 
exertion,  and  many  chronic  lung  troubles  have  no  doubt  followed  upon  ex- 
posure and  neglect  during  and  after  such  exertion.  Ur.  Parkes  states  that 
congestion  of  the  lungs  may  follow  upon  excessive  or  badly  arranged  exercise. 

Bones  and  Muscli  3. 

Bones  have  been  fractured  by  pure  muscular  violence,  notably  the  clavicle 
and  humerus,  but  in  the  majority  of  such  instances  the  bone  has  proved  to 
have  been  diseased  at  the  seat  of  fracture. 

Violent  exercise  may  lead  to  all  kinds  of  lesions  of  the  muscles.     Muscles 

.  be  ruptured  in  whole  or  in  part,  tendons  may  be  rent  across  or  torn  away 

from  the  bone,  or  may  be  displaced  from  the  grooves  in  which  they  lie.     In 

many  instances  the  subject  of  these  lesions  is  out  of  condition,  or  is  in  feeble 

health  or  aged,  or  is  suffering  from  definite  disease. 

The  Hon.  E.  I.vttleton  well  says  ("Health  Exhibition  Manuals,"  vol.  x, 
]>.  1  3  1 )  :  "To  an  athlete  the  first  premonition  of  coming  old  age  is  to  sprain 
himself  somewhere. "' 

l<  9  which  arc  over-exercised  for  a  considerable  time  waste  and  become 
soft.    Ti  onal  runners  are  occasionally  quite  atrophied  from 

over-use  of  the  muscles  of  the  parts. 

The  abuse  of  <  en  tin  movements  and  the  excessive  repetition  of  the  same 
in.iv  lead  to  some  pern  atraction  of  the  muscles  concerned.    Thus  in 

professional  gymnasts  who  use  the  fl<  ie  arm  to  excess,  the  ell 

be  lound  to  be  a  little  flexed  and  roll  extension  of  the  j»<int  to  !><-•  impossible. 
Sailors  on  sailing  vessels  who  are  constantly  holding  or  hauling  ropes  not  in- 
frequently develop  a  conditioo  of  the  hand  which  prevents  lull  extension  of 
the  in 

'I  in-  fin<  r  11.11  1  ■!.  -  when  unreasonably  employed  may  become  the  subject  of 
1    illustrated  bj  m  \<  and  other  forms  of 

in  incident  to  >  erl  tin  employments. 

Joints  may  be  injured  by  violent  exertion.    Synovitis  may  follow  upon 


54  PHYSICAL   EDUCATION. 

over-use  of  an  articulation,  and  one  very  common  accident  among  the  athletic 
is  a  displaced  semi-lunar  cartilage  in  the  knee-joint. 

Certain  deformities  of  the  body  may  follow  restricted  and  often  repeated 
exercises  and  the  excessive  employment  of  certain  muscles.  Gymnasts  who 
have  developed  to  an  extreme  degree  the  muscles  of  the  upper  limbs  and 
upper  half  of  the  trunk  have  a  rounded  back  in  addition  to  their  unwieldy 
shoulders. 

Fencing  tends  to  produce  a  lateral  curvature  of  the  spine,  with  (in  right- 
handed  fencers)  the  concavity  of  the  curve  to  the  right.  The  author  has 
observed  a  permanent  degree  of  lordosis  in  an  acrobat  who  produced  extra- 
ordinary results  by  his  power  of  bending  the  body  backwards  at  the  lumbar 
region. 

Hernia. 

The  influence  of  muscular  exertion  in  the  etiology  of  hernia  is  so  fully  dealt 
with  in  the  ordinary  text-books  of  surgery  that  it  need  not  be  considered  at 
length  in  this  place. 

In  cases  of  congenital  hernia  and  in  such  other  forms  as  depend  upon  de- 
fects in  the  vaginal  process  of  the  peritoneum,  and  in  those  instances  of  hernia 
generally  which  are  met  with  in  young  children,  the  rupture  is  made  manifest 
by  some  expulsive  effort  as  a  rule,  and  not  by  any  movements  that  can  be 
considered  as  constituting  exercise. 

Acquired  hernise  are  beyond  doubt  produced  by  forces  tending  to  cause 
the  intestines  to  protrude. 

Violent  effort  is  a  recognized  factor  in  the  production  of  these  ruptures.  It 
is  very  rarely  indeed,  however,  the  sole  factor.  Certain  anatomical  conditions 
are  present  which  render  a  hernia  possible  in  one  man  and  almost  impossible 
in  another. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  the  main  safeguard  against  hernia  is  a  perfect  and 
vigorous  muscular  development.  The  greater  number  of  examples  of  acquired 
hernia  are  met  with,  not  only  in  men  of  imperfect  muscular  development, 
but  in  individuals  who  are  out  of  condition.  Such  hernise  are  commoner  in 
those  who  return  to  laborious  work  after  an  illness  or  when  in  feebler  health, 
in  men  who  undertake  heavy  work  without  any  preliminary  training,  in  per- 
sons who  by  reason  of  their  age  or  their  habits  are  losing  muscular  tone,  are 
becoming  coarse,  soft  and  flabby,  are  developing  fat  within  the  abdomen,  and 
who  exhibit  the  phenomena  of  relaxed  tissue.  Gymnasts  and  acrobats,  in 
spite  of  the  immense  muscular  effort  they  put  forth,  are  seldom  the  subjects 


TRAINING.  55 

of  hernia.  If  they  become  ruptured,  the  hernia  will  appear  late  in  their 
career,  at  a  time  when  they  are  falling  off  and  losing  tone,  or  at  any  period 
when  they  are  out  of  condition  and  out  of  training. 

Carefully  selected,  systematic  and  well-graduated  exercise  is  the  best  pro- 
tection against  hernia,  and  the  objections  against  athletics  founded  upon  the 
production  of  hernia  are  unjust  and  unsound.  An  acquired  umbilical  hernia 
is  unknown  in  muscular  men  with  firm  abdominal  walls.  It  is  common  in 
those  who  have  large,  flabby  and  pendulous  bellies  and  who  take  no  exercise 
at  all.  So  far  as  acquired  hernia  is  concerned,  it  would  be  more  accurate  to 
state  that  rupture  is  due  to  want  of  excercise  rather  than  to  excessive  indul- 
gence in  the  same. 

TRAINING. 

With  "  training  "  in  the  sense  of  preparing  the  body  for  athletic  competi- 
tions and  great  feats  of  endurance  the  present  article  has  no  concern.  The 
subject  may  be  considered  only  in  so  far  as  it  throws  light  upon  the  mode  of 
living  which  may  be  observed  by  those  who  are  anxious  to  get  themselves  into 
condition  and  to  take  a  considerable  amount  of  moderate  exercise. 

Upon  this  subject  a  number  of  books,  pamphlets,  and  articles  have  been 
written,  and,  it  must  be  confessed,  a  great  deal  of  nonsense  promulgated. 

•ige  elements  of  superstition  and  gross  ignorance  have  entered  into  the 
older  methods  of  training,  and  there  are  still  professional  athletes  who  keep 
the  details  of  their  tr  lining  secret,  or  who  ascribe  their  success  to  some  article 
>d  or  some  particular  rite  or  observance. 

The  old  system  of  training  was  quite  remarkable.  The  unfortunate  man 
had  his  weight  reduced  by  profuse  sweating,  especially  by  walking  and  run- 
ning in  thick  and  heavy  clothes.     He  was  purged  every  d  -  almost 

rved  in  the  matter  of  water,  and  took  sparingly  of  old  ale,  spirits,  and  | 
1  [e  lived  m  tinly  upon  half-cooked  b<  ind  bre  id,  and  was  encour. 

to  gorge  himself  upon  this  monotonous  diet. 

.  >w  entirely  chang  imateur  athlett 

concerned,  and  without  entering  into  detail  as  to  tl  methods  practii  ed 

by  one  modern  system  or  another,  ti  I  features  of 

of  training  may  be  briefly  discussed. 

In  the  first  place  time  musl  be  considered.     "A  man  of  twenty  fiv< 
upwards,"  writes  Mr.  Woodgate,  " who  has  been  lying  by  for  months,  or  it 
maybe  fora  year  or  two,  can  <  i  ■  >  w  i  t :  i  three  month   of  training.     Hie 


56  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

half  should  be  less  severe  than  the  last.  He  can  get  into  '  hunting '  condition 
in  the  first  six  weeks,  and  progress  to  '  racing '  condition  in  the  succeeding 
six.  University  crews  train  from  five  to  six  weeks.  College  crews  cannot 
give  much  more  than  three  weeks  to  train  for  the  summer  bumping  races." 

During  training  a  man's  life  must  be  as  regular  as  a  clock ;  his  meals 
must  be  taken  to  the  minute ;  his  exercises  must  be  systematized  and  so  ad- 
justed as  to  be  progressive  and  well-timed.  He  should  retire  to  bed  early 
and  rise  early,  should  sleep  in  a  well-ventilated  room,  should  bathe  night 
and  morning,  should  be  particular  as  to  the  kind  of  clothing  worn,  and  take 
every  precaution  to  avoid  cold.  In  all  things  he  should  be  moderate  and 
methodical.  His  meals  are  best  represented  by  a  substantial  breakfast,  a  light 
lunch,  a  still  lighter  tea,  and  a  substantial  dinner  in  the  evening  when  his  day's 
work  is  over.  He  should  take  plenty  of  sleep.  He  should  rest  after  each 
meal.  Smoking  should  be  absolutely  forbidden,  and  no  form  of  alcohol 
should  be  allowed.  There  is  overwhelming  evidence  to  support  the  practice 
of  training  upon  water.  In  the  matter  of  diet  a  man  should  be  moderate, 
should  not  gorge  himself,  and  should,  within  certain  limits,  consult  his  own 
taste  in  the  selection  of  food. 

He  will  do  best  with  the  most  easily  digested  foods,  and  may  take  beef, 
mutton,  chicken,  fish,  and  game,  while  he  should  avoid  pork  and  veal  and 
lobster,  and  other  well-accredited  producers  of  dyspepsia.  He  should  under 
no  circumstances  be  debarred  from  eating  fat  and  butter.  A  man  in  training 
needs  a  good  supply  of  carbon  in  his  food. 

It  is  well  to  avoid  much  sloppy  food,  such  as  soups  and  broths,  to  be  very 
moderate  in  the  consumption  of  starchy  foods  and  of  sugar,  to  avoid  coarse 
vegetables  and  large  quantities  of  potatoes.  Some  green  vegetables  and  some 
fruit  should  be  taken  every  day.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  he  should  avoid 
pastry  and  sweets,  and  the  confused  and  uncertain  forms  of  food  known  as 
entrees.  Cheese  may  well  be  omitted  from  his  dietary,  and  salad  take  a  con- 
stant place.     Meat  will  be  eaten  at  breakfast,  lunch,  and  dinner. 

In  the  matter  of  liquids,  he  should  not  drink  for  the  sake  of  drinking. 
He  should  take  as  much  only  as  is  needed  to  quench  his  thirst,  and  he 
should  not  consider  the  time  of  his  drinking.  The  custom  of  allowing  men 
to  drink  only  a  certain  quantity  of  water  at  certain  fixed  times  of  the  day  is 
obviously  silly.  A  man  should  drink  when  he  is  thirsty,  and  should  not  be 
compelled  to  suffer  with  a  parched  mouth  simply  because  the  drinking  hour 
has  not  come.     Men  differ  immensely  in  the  quantity  of  fluid  they  need. 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  57 

The  matter  cannot  be  settled  by  rule.  It  may  be  taken  as  certain  that  the 
least  quantity  is  consumed  when  taken  in  small  amounts  and  often,  and  not 
when  the  individual  has  been  tortured  with  thirst  and  swallows  a  quart  or 
more  when  his  time  for  drinking  comes. 

Under  a  reasonable  and  liberal  system  of  training,  no  man  should  break 
down  or  become,  as  the  expression  goes,  "  stale." 

The  old  system  of  training  was  rather  a  test  of  strength  than  a  means  of 
developing  it,  and  those  who  train  in  modern  times  should  make  themselves 
familiar  with  the  follies  of  those  who  trained  in  days  gone  by. 

SPECIFIC  EXERCISES. 

Walking 

Is  the  most  usual,  the  most  simple,  the  most  easy,  and  one  of  the  most  valu- 
able modes  of  taking  exercise.  It  is  suited  for  individuals  of  all  ages  and  of 
all  states  of  development.  It  is  the  main  exercise  of  the  quite  young  child, 
a  prominent  feature  in  the  training  of  the  athlete,  and  usually  the  only  form 
of  exercise  indulged  in  by  the  aged. 

It  is  a  mode  of  exercise  which  requires  neither  apparatus  nor  special 
locality,  and  there  can  be  few  so  engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  living  as  to  find  a 
legitimate  excuse  for  not  indulging  in  this  simple  means  of  keeping  the  body 
in  health. 

While   walking   exercises  mainly  the   muscles  of  the   legs,  it  brings   into 

play  also  the  muscles  of  the  loin  and  of  the  back  and  abdomen.     Not  only 

has  the  individual  to  move,  he  has  also  to  keep  erect.     The  circulation  and 

respiratory  movements  an-  increased,  and  the  general  beneficial  effects  of 

ire  brought  about. 

I  In-  .i<  "ill  mechanii  s  of  walking  ami  the  precise  nature  and  extent  of  the 
movements  involved  are  admirably  Illustrated  by  the  photographs  published 
by  Mr.  Eadweard  Muybridge,  of  Philadelphia.    Certain  of  these  are  re 
duced  with  a  very  lucid  explanation  in  beating's  "Cyclopedia  of  the  Dis- 
ildren"     ( Vol.  iv.,  1  [91). 

Walking  is  distinct  from  marching,  in  which  a  less  easy  attitude  of  the 

oaintained.     <m!i<t   things   being   equal,  slow  walking   is    more    tiring 

talking  at  a  moder  it'-  pa<  e. 

It    i,    import. int    that    tl  t"  walking  be  cultivated,  tint  the  spine  be 

kept  ]  b  u  k.     \m  e  1  \  and  ; 


58  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

fleetly  graceful  mode  of  walking  is  not  common  among  civilized  people.  The 
countryman  rolls  along  walking  from  his  hips,  the  over-dressed  lady  steps 
stiffly  and  gingerly  like  an  automaton,  the  untrained  lad  slouches  in  a  manner 
well  termed  slovenly. 

A  purposeless  walk,  such  as  is  the  common  exercise  and  often  the  only 
exercise  in  ladies'  schools,  where  the  pupils  walk  in  procession,  side  by  side, 
over  a  stated  distance,  is  somewhat  depressing  and  does  not  develop  the 
exercise  to  its  fullest.  Walking  with  an  object  represents  the  best  and  most 
pleasant  form  of  this  element  in  physical  training.  Shooting  involves,  not 
only  the  delights  and  excitement  of  sport,  and  the  use  of  the  hands  and 
arms,  but  also  a  long  walk  over  often  irregular  and  difficult  ground.  The  ad- 
mirable game  of  golf,  which  is  said  to  date  from  the  time  of  Edward  III., 
represents  one  of  the  very  best  forms  of  walking  with  an  object.  This  game 
has  a  fascination  both  for  the  young  and  the  old,  and  is  one  of  the  most  per- 
fect, and  in  every  way  the  most  admirable  form  of  exercise  for  men  who  are 
past  middle  life  or  have  reached  old  age. 

Walking  races  are  contests  more  or  less  of  endurance,  and  test  rather  the 
staying  powers  than  the  skill  or  the  muscular  strength  of  the  competitor. 
Many  professional  walkers  walk  vilely.  In  walking  for  a  race,  "  it  is  abso- 
lutely necessary,"  writes  a  great  authority  (Mr.  Shearman),  "to  have  the 
muscles  so  hard  all  over  the  body  that  '  knocking  off'  for  any  space  of  time 
becomes  fatal  to  all  chances  of  success." 

In  walking  competitions  the  mile  has  been  covered  in  6  minutes  23  sec- 
onds, three  miles  in  20  minutes  21^4  seconds,  twenty  miles  in  less  than  3 
hours,  and  fifty  miles  in  less  than  8  hours. 

Running 
Is  the  exercise  for  children  and  young  people.  It  employs  the  muscles  of 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  body,  and,  by  increasing  the  rate  and  depth  of  the 
respirations,  is  an  admirable  element  in  developing  the  chest.  Children  ap- 
pear to  be  the  subjects  of  an  irresistible  impulse  to  run,  an  impulse  that  should 
never  be  checked. 

Running  has  been  described  as  a  succession  of  leaps.  It  undoubtedly  has 
a  most  beneficial  effect  upon  the  circulation  of  the  viscera,  strengthens  the 
heart,  when  indulged  in  in  moderation  brings  out  the  individual's  powers  of 
endurance  as  well  as  his  strength  and  his  capacity  for  rapid  movement. 

Muybridge's  photographs  show  the  mechanical  details  of  the  act  of  running 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  59 

very  clearly.  A  reproduction  of  two  of  these  photographs  in  Keating's  "  Cy- 
clopaedia "  {Joe.  cif.)  may  be  advantageously  consulted. 

Running,  to  any  extent,  as  an  exercise,  is  not  advisable  after  the  age 
of  thirty,  nor  in  those  who  have  not  kept  themselves  in  practice  and  in 
sound  condition.  In  the  aged  it  may  be  ranked  often  as  actually  danger- 
ous. The  best  ages  for  running  are  between  eighteen  and  twenty  five,  and 
upon  few  forms  of  athletic  exercise  does  age  teil  more  certainly  and  accu- 
rately than  in  this. 

So  far  as  athletic  excellence  is  concerned,  it  may  be  said  that  a  runner  is 
born,  not  made.  There  are  many  who  would  never  attain  a  first  position  as 
runners,  in  spite  of  unlimited  practice.  Sprint  running  or  sprinting  is  the 
term  applied  to  running  a  short  distance  at  top  speed  without  a  break. 
Three  hundred  yards  is  considered  to  represent  the  limit  of  sprinting  dis- 
tance. "In  sprinting,"  writes  Mr.  Shearman,  "the  front  muscles  of  the  thigh 
which  bring  the  leg  forward  are  the  most  important  factors  for  speed,  as  it  is 
on  the  rapid  repetition  of  the  stride  that  the  main  result  depends  ;  in  the 
running  of  longer  distances  the  back  muscles  of  the  thigh,  which  effect  the 
ulsion,  bear  the  chief  strain.  Both  sets  of  muscles  are,  of  course,  used 
in  every  race,  but  the  longer  the  distance  the  less  important  the  front  mus- 
cles become."  The  sprinter,  however,  runs  rather  with  his  lungs  and  heart 
than  with  his  legs.  Hreathlessness  is  the  difficulty  with  which  he  has  to  con- 
tend. Thus  it  happens  that  the  sprinter  may  be  tall  or  short,  may  be  a 
feather  weight  or  scale  at  13  stone,  may  have  limbs  like  a  deer  or  calves 
whirl]  would  i  ause  the  envy  of  a  footman. 

Long  dis]  m<  e  running  is  a  matter,  not  only  of  strength,  but  also  of  endur- 
ance and  lung  power.  Some  of  the  best  long-distance  runners  have  been 
short  men,  very  >tr. mg,  light  of  weight,  and  with  large  and  deep  chesN. 

Hare  and  hounds  and  the  pap<  form  most  exciting  and  admirable 

forms  of  running.    The  sport,  however,  is  1  ory  open  to  those  who  are  young, 
who  are  in  perfect  condition,  and  who  have  increased  the  distances  thej  I 
run  from  time  to  time  by  gradual  steps. 

For  children  a  hoop  forms  one  of  the  most  popular  mens  of  giving  ■ 
purpose  to  running  and  of  infusing  interest  into  what  in  the  abstract  is  a 
somewhat  monotonous  form  of  exercise. 

On  the  1  rds  have  been  covered  in  10  sec.,  and  300  yards 

in  30    o  .       \  11  ile  h  i  .  been  completed    in    .1    min..   i  :  :       KC  .    three  mile,  in 

i  t  min..  twenty  miles  in  a  few  minute,  short  of  two  hours,  and  fifty 

miles  m  a  little  short  of  six  hour,. 


60  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

Jumping, 
Like  running,  has  certain  very  definite  age  limits.  Jumping  in  competitions  is 
limited  to  individuals  under  thirty  or  more  usually  under  twenty-five.  Twenty 
may  be  taken  as  the  best  age.  In  jumping,  the  muscles  of  the  lower  limb  are 
of  course  mainly  employed,  but  in  addition  to  these  it  will  be  noticed  that 
nearly  every  muscle  in  the  body  is  in  action  as  the  leap  is  taken.  The  de- 
tails of  the  movement  are  well  shown  in  Muybridge's  photographs  (see  Keat- 
ings  "Cyclopedia,"  vol.  iv.,  photo,  v.). 

A  jumper  of  any  excellence  is,  like  a  runner,  born,  not  made.  Celebrated 
jumpers,  especially  long  jumpers,  have  been  of  almost  any  size  and  weight. 
W.  B.  Page,  who  cleared  a  height  of  6  ft.  3^  in.,  was  only  5  ft.  6  in.  in  height. 
Jumping  as  an  element  of  physical  education  has  some  especial  points  of 
value.  It  encourages  very  vigorous,  instantaneous  and  well  co-ordinated 
muscular  contractions,  and  cultivates  that  form  of  muscle  intelligence  which 
is  called  spring. 

I  am  of  opinion  that  jumping  is  not  quite  the  exercise  for  women,  or  for 
young  girls  who  have  passed  the  period  of  puberty.  Certain  uterine  troubles 
have  with  some  show  of  reason  been  ascribed  to  an  indulgence  in  this  exer- 
cise. For  flabby  people  and  young  subjects  who  are  disposed  to  be  stout, 
and  for  any  who  are  not  in  very  sound  condition,  the  exercise  is  not  with- 
out risk.  It  may  well  be  left  to  lads  and  to  youths  in  the  prime  of  athletic 
life. 

In  the  high  jump  6  ft.  3^  in.  have  been  cleared,  and  in  the  long  jump  the 
remarkable  distance  of  23  ft.  2  in. 

Allied  to  jumping  must  be  considered  the  exercise  of  skipping.  A  more 
admirable  and  more  perfect  form  of  exercise,  considering  its  simplicity,  could 
not  be  practiced.  It  employs  the  muscles,  not  only  of  the  legs  and  loins, 
but  also  of  the  back,  abdomen,  and  neck,  and  even  the  muscles  of  the  arms ; 
it  especially  tends  to  strengthen  the  ankles  and  knees  and  the  arches  of  the 
foot ;  it  is  admirable  for  children  with  weak  backs ;  it  increases  the  respira- 
tory movements  to  a  marked  extent ;  and  if  practiced  upon  grass  and  in  the 
open  air  it  is  one  of  the  most  perfect  forms  of  exercise  for  young  girls  that 
could  be  devised. 

Those  who  consider  skipping  too  simple  and  too  trivial  to  form  a  serious 
element  in  a  physical  education  may  be  surprised  to  know  that  many  athletes 
and  gymnasts,  and  notably,  it  must  be  owned,  prize  fighters,  take  a  very 
large  part  of  the  exercise  prescribed  during  training  by  means  of  the  skip- 
ping-rcpe. 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  61 

It  would  be  well  if  those  parents  who  consider  that  nothing  in  the  v. 
physical  training  can  be  done  without  a  gymnasium  or  a  drill-sergeant  would 
invest  in  a  hoop  and  a  skipping-rope  and  take  note  of  the  effect  produced  by 
these  simple  means. 

A  skipping  competition  upon  a  lawn  or  in  a  field  is,  when  kept  within 
limits,  one  of  the  most  perfect  forms  of  recreation  a  girl  can  indulge  in.  It 
should  be  carried  out  in  slippers  or  light  shoes,  and  if  it  were  a  little  more 
popular,  the  feeble  ankles  and  flat  feet  which  are  so  common  among  girls  and 
women  would  certainly  be  less  often  met  with. 

Skating 
Is  another  admirable  exercise,  especially  valuable  from  the  fact  that  it  can  be 
practiced  at  a  time  when  few  forms  of  outdoor  recreation  are  possible,  and 
when  girls  and  women  are  apt  to  sit  at  home  and  huddle  over  a  fire  or  weary 
themselves  by  dancing,  until  the  small  hours  of  the  morning,  in  a  heated 
ball-room. 

Skating  is  a  form  of  modified  walking,  but  it  calls  into  play  a  greater  variety 
of  muscles.  The  balance  has  to  be  maintained  and  the  muscles  of  the  ab- 
domen, back  and  loins  have  much  to  do.  It  is  exhilarating,  it  is  admirably 
adapted  for  persons  of  almost  all  ages,  and  is  as  well  suited  for  females  as  for 
males  ;  it  comes  at  a  time  when  the  want  of  exercise  in  the  open  air  is 
probably  telling  upon  the  health  and  spirits;  it  tends  to  give  an  easy  and 
eral  carriage  to  the  body  ;  it  strengthens  the  ankles,  and  is  a  tine  antidote 
for  the  flimsier  form  of  nervousness.  No  mode  of  progression  upon  the  feet 
is  more  delightful,  easy  or  invigorating.  In  a  country  house,  when  every  form 
of  indoor  amusement  has  been  exhausted,  when  the  roads  are  too  dirty  tor 
walking  and  tin-  ground  too  heavy  tor  pleasant  riding,  a  hard  black  frost 
nd  the  manner  in  which  the  young  and  the  old,  the  strong 
ami  the  frail,  turn  out  and  hurry  to  the  ice,  gives  the  impression  that  the  in- 
stinct for  exercise  in  human  beirj  ig  as  the  impulse  which  leads  the 
duckling  to  the  w  iter. 

In  rai  tag,  the  following  dist  inces  have  been  covered  in  the  times  named  : 
ioo  yard-,  in  [0  sec,  one  mile  in  3  niin.,  zu  sec  ;  three  miles  in  10  min.,  33 
sec;  twenty  mile-,  in   1   In.,   1  |  min,  ;   fifty  miles  in  4  hrs.,  13  min. 

RlDl 

I     •  mode  of  taking  exercise  ami   fresh  air  which  i-  oof  open  to  all,  and  is 
1  certain  narrow  limits  denied  to  the  inhabitants  of  citi 


62  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

The  muscles  exercised  in  riding  are  those  mainly  of  the  adductor  segment 
of  the  thigh  and  of  the  back.  The  movement  undoubtedly  improves  the 
visceral  circulation  and  affords  a  remedy  for  hepatic  congestion  and  constipa- 
tion ;  it  promotes  a  deeper  respiration  and  a  more  active  pulse  ;  it  combines 
in  a  remarkable  maimer  both  active  and  passive  movement  and  is  a  specific 
for  the  dyspepsia  and  other  ills  which  attend  a  sedentary  life ;  it  provides  a 
means  of  strengthening  the  spine,  and  it  should  be  remembered  that  a  good 
"seat"  implies  rather  the  power  of  keeping  the  trunk  well  balanced  than  the 
power  of  gripping  the  saddle  with  strong  adductor  musles. 

It  is  a  pursuit  that  can  be  indulged  in  from  childhood  to  old  age,  and  it  is 
one  of  the  most  popular  forms  of  exercise  among  Englishwomen. 

Children  should  learn  young  and  should  be  well  taught.  The  exercise  is 
not  good  for  girls  with  commencing  lateral  curvature,  nor  should  it  be  taken 
up  by  children  who  have  "  outgrown  their  strength,"  and  are  tall,  weedy,  and 
of  feeble  muscular  development,  until  the  muscles  have  been  strengthened 
by  other  methods.  Overgrown  girls  who  indulge  in  no  other  exercise  but 
riding  are  apt  to  become  round-shouldered  and  round-backed  and  to  acquire 
a  very  ungraceful  seat.  Lateral  curvature  of  the  spine  is  certainly  often  in- 
duced and  fostered  by  riding. 

In  any  instance  a  young  girl  should  be  taught  to  ride  upon  either  side  of 
the  saddle,  and  this  precaution  should  be  especially  observed  in  the  case  of 
those  who  are  supposed  to  have  weak  backs.  After  a  very  long  ride  a  man 
feels  most  tired  in  the  lower  part  of  his  spine,  and  is  very  disposed  to  loll  in 
the  saddle.  In  a  young  girl  the  most  important  muscular  strain  comes  upon 
the  back,  and  is  concerned  in  keeping  the  body  ertct. 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  girls,  who  have  been  badly  taught,  riding  with 
the  body  much  bent  to  one  side,  or  with  the  spine  "  all  in  a  heap,"  and  in  the 
attitude  of  cyphosis.  Riding  is  not  the  best  kind  of  exercise  for  the  round- 
shouldered  and  for  such  girls  as  have  unequally  developed  chests. 

Horse  exercise,  so  far  as  ladies  ar^  concerned,  is  a  little  hampered  by  the 
fashion  which  demands  that  a  riding  habit  should  fit  like  a  glove,  and  that,  as 
a  consequence,  the  waist  should  be  compressed  so  as  to  reach  fashionable 
proportions.  The  long  skirt  of  the  riding  habit  adds  not  a  little  to  the  danger 
of  horse  exercise  for  women. 

Riding  forms  an  admirable  exercise  for  men  who  have  reached  or  have 
passed  middle  life,  and  the  saddle  is  very  often  the  last  thing  that  an  old 
sporting  man  relinquishes  as  infirmity  creeps  on. 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  63 

Professional  horsemen  (grooms,  postilions,  jockeys,  etc.)  are  apt  to  develop 
a  certain  deformity  of  the  lower  limbs  and  back.  The  legs  tend  to  become 
concave  or  bowed,  and  seem  often  to  have  been  stunted  in  growth.  The 
back — especially  in  jockeys — tends  to  become  arched  and  rounded,  and  the 
shoulders  high.  An  old  ostler  and  an  old  jockey  have  often  a  quite  charac- 
teristic figure  and  attitude. 

The  deformity,  such  as  it  is,  is  evidently  the  result  of  style  in  riding,  as  it  is 
not  observed  in  artillerymen  and  other  cavalry  soldiers. 

Swimming 

Should  be  taught  as  a  matter  of  routine  to  every  child,  and  it  is  a  disgrace  to 
this  country  that  this  very  simple  accomplishment  is  so  rare.  Swimming 
U  easily  learned  at  any  age,  and  when  once  mastered  is  never  forgotten.  It 
is  acquired  nearly  as  quickly  by  girls  as  by  boys,  and  the  first  lessons  may  be 
given  between  the  ages  of  eight  and  ten. 

Swimming  calls  into  use  a  new  set  of  muscles,  or  rather  a  new  combination 
of  muscles.  In  the  early  struggles  of  the  learner  an  immense  amount  of 
force  is  expended  in  carrying  out  the  unaccustomed  movements.  As  pro- 
ficiency is  attained  the  movement  becomes  easier  and  easier,  until  it  is  as 
simple  as  walking,  and  the  limits  of  the  swimmer's  powers  are  restrained 
rather  by  the  temperature  of  the  water  than  by  his  muscles. 

Few  modes  of  exercise  are  more  enjoyable,  especially  when  practiced  in  a 
broad  river  or  the  open  sea. 

The  muscles  of  both  the  upper  and  lower  extremities  are  concerned,  and 
to  a  lesser  degree  the  muscles  of  the  back  and  abdomen.  The  scapular 
must  deltoid,   the   pectorals,  and,  above  all,  the  latissimus  dorsi, 

especially  employed  in  swimming.  The  arms  tire  before  the  legs,  and  the 
sense  of  exhaustion  is  always  experienced  most  about  the  shoulder. 

Work  in  a  llent   means  of  developing   the   swimming 

.  and,  so  far  as  long  di  ire  concerned,  the  chief  factors  are 

strong  arms  and  a  good  chi 
Swimming  increases  the  respirator]  movements  and  straightens  the  back, 
cements  of  the  liml  d  afford  a  striking  contrast  to 

■  1  t'  the  other  forms  "f  exen  ise  whi<  i  the  lower  lin 

Swimming  should  be  well  taught     Considering  the  facilitii  rded  in 

quiring  the  art,  it  is  astounding  thai  among  those  who  do 
Bwim  a  fine  an  naming  is  so  r  ire, 


64  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

Probably  some  70  per  cent,  of  those  who  can  swim  can  just  "swim  a  lit- 
tle," and  can  not  do  more  than  keep  themselves  afloat  by  extravagant  move- 
ments for  fifty  or  a  hundred  yards. 

I  do  not  think  that  the  practicing  of  the  swimming  movements  on  land  is 
of  much  value,  although  it  forms  a  great  feature  in  the  gymnastic  course  in 
France. 

The  most  remarkable  swimming  feat  was  that  of  Matthew  Webb,  who  swam 
from  Dover  to  Calais  in  21  hours  45  minutes.  In  a  race  100  yards  has  been 
covered  in  1  minute  6  seconds. 

Fencing 

In  the  Badminton  Library  volume  on  fencing,  the  history  of  this  art  is  de- 
tailed, together  with  the  circumstances  and  manner  of  its  development,  and  to 
the  account  is  appended  a  quite  remarkable  bibliography  of  the  subject. 

Fencing,  as  it  is  at  present  practiced,  is  an  extremely  scientific,  precise, 
and  highly  elaborated  art.  It  is  no  mere  slashing  with  a  protected  foil. 
Every  move  has  been  systematized  ;  every  method  of  attack  and  defence  has 
its  individual  name.  The  movements  are  as  complex,  and  yet  as  well  defined, 
as  the  movements  of  the  men  upon  a  chess-board.  No  mode  of  exercise  has 
reached  a  more  elaborate  degree  of  finish.  Fencing  is  pre-eminently  an  ex- 
ercise of  skill.  Considerable  employment  is  given  to  all  the  muscles  of  the 
body,  to  the  lower  limbs,  and  to  the  back,  but  principally,  it  is  needless  to 
say,  to  the  right  or  sword  arm.  The  beginner  will,  after  his  first  few  lessons, 
ache  from  head  to  foot.  He  will  believe  that  he  has  been  fencing  with  every 
muscle  he  possessed,  a  belief  which  will  be  well  founded.  As,  however,  he 
becomes  more  proficient,  he  will  feel  that  the  strain  falls  to  a  great  extent 
upon  the  right  upper  extremity. 

Fencing  is  as  much  an  exercise  of  the  brain  as  of  the  muscles.  He  who 
has  acquired  some  proficiency  in  the  art  will  find  that  he  becomes  tired  in 
his  brain  and  cord  rather  than  in  his  limbs.  The  bout  induces  rather  a  nerve 
than  a  muscle  fatigue. 

Fencing  develops  certain  faculties  in  an  admirable  manner.  It  requires 
quickness  of  eye,  extreme  readiness  of  action,  accurate  muscular  sense,  great 
precision  and  fineness  of  movement,  and  perfect  powers  of  ready  co-ordina- 
tion. It  involves  the  practice  of  a  quick  decision,  a  rapid  judgment,  and  a 
good  memory.  A  fool  could  never  become  a  good  fencer,  even  if  he  were 
endowed  with  the  most  excellent  physical  qualifications. 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  65 

Fencing  has  become  more  popular  of  late  years,  and  is  an  excellent  exer- 
cise for  busy  men.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  practice  often  takes  place  in 
somewhat  ill-ventilated  rooms.  Fencing  for  elder  children  and  for  ladies 
forms,  as  it  is  usually  practised,  but  a  somewhat  imperfect  development  of  the 
proper  art.  It  is  not  the  exercise  which  would  be  recommended  to  excitable, 
nervous,  or  overworked  children.  It  is  better  adapted  for  those  who  appear 
to  be  apathetic  or  dull.  A  dull  boy  will  find  a  fencing  lesson  an  infinitely 
greater  "  fag  "  than  whole  pages  of  irregular  verbs. 

It  should  never  form  for  children,  or  indeed  for  adults,  an  exclusive  or 
even  predominant  form  of  exercise,  on  account  of  the  unequal  muscular  de- 
velopment it  encourages.  It  is  well  suited  to  encourage  in  lads  and  in  elder 
girls  a  good  carriage,  free  movements,  a  lissom  and  graceful  attitude  of  the 
body,  great  agility,  and  both  muscular  and  mental  quickness.  If  it  is  possible 
to  make  an  individual  "  sharp,"  fencing  may  be  considered  as  capable  of 
doing  it. 

The  exercise  must  be  recommended  with  great  care.  It  would  be  injurious 
to  those  who  have  a  disposition  to  lateral  curvature,  and  to  any  who  are  the 
subjects  of  unequal  muscular  development. 

In  the  physical  education  of  the  young  it  can  occupy  but  a  small  space. 
a  perfect  exercise  for  adults,  especially  for  men  who  lead  sedentary  and 
monotonous  lives.  Dr.  Lagrange  asserts  that  "every  one  who  has  fenced 
much  shows,  in  a  more  or  less  pronounced  degree,  a  lateral  curvature  of  the 
spine."  In  right-handed  fencers  the  concavity  of  the  curvature  is  to  the 
right,  in  the  left-handed  to  the  left.  The  shoulder  of  the  arm  which  holds 
the  foil  is  lowered.  Dr.  I  grange  founds  his  conclusions  upon  the  examina- 
tion of  twenty  experienced  fencers.  The  tendencies  to  deformity  arc  very 
unequally  marked.  In  some  tin.  deviations  are  quite  trivial,  in  others  they 
are  pronounced.  This  evidence  is  of  considerable  importance  in  forming  an 
oate  of  the  value  of  fencing  as  a  muscular  exert  ise,  especially  to  those 
who  arc  under  twenty  or  twenty-five  years  ofaj 

Boxing, 

It'  carried  out  under  proper  conditions,  and  espei  iatty  if  practiced  in  the  open 
is  an  admirable  1  n  lads  and  young  men.     Unfortunately,  the 

surroundings  of  a  boxing  saloon  .ire  uot  always  the  best  adapted  for  the  edu- 
m  of  youth,  and  the  so-called  "•  "  of  the  art  are  not  usually  the 

plasti<    minded   lads. 


66  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

The  exercise  itself,  however,  is  admirable.  It  brings  into  play  prac- 
tically all  the  muscles  of  the  body.  A  vigorous  blow  is  struck  as  much  from 
the  leg  and  trunk  as  from  the  arm.  It  has  been  well  said  that  a  good  and 
powerful  blow  starts  from  the  foot.  Mitchell,  in  the  monograph  upon  boxing, 
in  the  Badminton  Library  series,  says:  "It  may  seem  paradoxical  and  pro- 
voke a  smile  to  say  that  the  first  necessity  for  using  the  fists  properly 
is  to  understand  the  use  of  the  feet."  The  boxer  needs  to  be  agile, 
to  be  able  to  use  his  legs,  to  be  quick  with  the  movements  of  his  head  and 
his  trunk.  Boxing,  moreover,  gives  excellent  use  to  the  left  arm,  which  is 
apt  to  be  neglected  in  many  other  forms  of  exercise.  It  calls  for  rapidity  of 
movement,  ready  decision,  good  judgment,  and  a  control  of  the  temper.  It 
promotes  the  circulation,  and  in  a  vigorous  round  the  boxer  is  very  soon 
rendered  breathless. 

The  atmosphere  in  a  boxing  saloon  is  not  always  so  well  supplied  with  fresh 
air  as  it  might  be. 

Boating. 

It  may  perhaps  be  said,  without  fear  of  contradiction,  that  boating  presents 
one  of  the  most  complete,  uniform  and  delectable  forms  of  exercise.  It  is  an 
exercise  which  is  especially  associated  with  the  English,  and  it  is  in  England 
that  the  sport  is  the  most  highly  elaborated  and  the  most  widely  practised. 
Boats  of  one  form  or  another  appear  among  the  environment  of  such  primi- 
tive peoples  as  have  lived  by  the  sea  or  about  the  banks  of  navigable  rivers ; 
but  the  development  of  boating  as  a  fine  art,  the  perfecting  of  this  pictur- 
esque and  enjoyable  mode  of  locomotion,  rests  with  the  sturdy  and  water- 
loving  sons  of  England.  Surrounded  on  all  sides  by  the  sea,  and  living  in  a 
land  permeated  by  many  rivers,  it  is  not  unnatural  that  an  English  lad  should 
take  to  the  water  like  a  duck,  and  should  feel  that  enthusiastic  love  for  the  sea 
which  appears  to  be  almost  an  hereditary  taste,  and  which  is  possibly  not  a 
little  influenced  by  the  great  naval  records  of  the  country. 

For  every  professional  rowing  man  in  our  midst  there  will  be  hundreds 
of  amateurs  who  are  by  no  means  a  discredit  to  the  sport.  At  all  public 
schools  situated  within  reach  of  water,  rowing  is  a  prominent  feature  of  school 
life.  At  the  two  great  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  boating  occu- 
pies a  position  which  the  less  robust  section  of  the  public  are  apt  to  consider 
a  little  too  conspicuous.  The  whole  length  of  the  Thames,  from  Oxford  to 
London,  during  the  few  months  of  the  English  summer,  is  alive  with  boats, 
and  is  animated  by  rowers  of  all  classes  and  all  ages.     Among  this  busy,  sun- 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  67 

browned,  and  vvhite-flanneled  community,  may  be  seen  old  men  and  maidens, 
as  well  as  young  men  and  children. 

The  sheer  delight  given  by  the  mere  circumstances  of  boating  requires 
little  comment.  It  needs  merely  the  conception  of  a  stretch  of  fair  water,  the 
early  morning  of  a  day  in  the  English  summer,  a  light  outrigger  and  a  pair 
of  sculls,  to  every  point  of  which  the  sculler  has  fitted  his  muscles.  There  is 
the  crisp  grasp  of  the  water,  the  swish  of  the  blades,  the  shooting  of  the  tiny 
craft  across  the  polished  river,  the  whistling  of  the  wind  about  the  rower's 
head,  and  the  rippling  of  the  water  as  the  prow  runs  through  the  magic  lights 
and  shadows  which  are  thrown  from  the  bank. 

Boating  offers,  moreover,  one  of  the  most  charming  forms  of  touring.  A 
man  may  spend  many  summer  holidays  in  a  boat  or  in  a  canoe  before  he  has 
exhausted  the  beauties  of  the  rivers  of  Great  Britain. 

Across  the  Channel,  the  system  of  canals  on  the  continent  offers  an  unpar- 
alleled opportunity  for  a  journey  such  as  has  been  described — as  no  other 
pen  could  have  described  it — by  R.  Louis  Stevenson  in  his  "  Inland  Voyage." 

It  is  greatly  to  the  credit  of  England  that  her  watenvays  are  more  densely 
peopled  with  boating  folk  than  are  the  waters  of  any  other  country  of  like 
population. 

With  regard  to  boats,  it  is  only  necessary  to  say  that  for  racing  the  keelless 
boat  is  employed.  Its  bottom  is  round  and  smooth.  Such  a  boat  is 
extremely  unsteady,  and  requires  all  the  skill  of  a  novice  to  "sit  it."  The 
beginner  may  find  no  difficulty  in  propelling  such  a  boat,  but  he  will  experi- 
ence considerable  difficulty  in  keeping  in  it.  The  sculler  in  a  racing  boat 
has,  like  the  bicyclist,  first  to  balance  himself  and  then  to  move. 

The  outrigger  was  introduced  in  1S42  by  Clasper. 

This   very  simple   improvement  enables  a  greatly  increased   length    and 

lvantage  in  leverage  to  be  given  to  the  oars,  while  at  the  same  time 

it  allows  the  dimensions  of  the  racing  craft,  and  especially  of  the  beam,  to  be 

h  reduced.     The  ordinary  length  of  an  inrigged   pair-oared  pleasure  boat 

or  gig  is  22  ft.,  and  the  beam  3  ft.  9  in.     The  length  of  a  racing  sculling  boat 

will  be  about  31   ft.,  and  the  beam  about  1  1  int  lies. 

Another  noteworthy  improvement—  the  invention  of  an  American— was  the 

sliding  seat,  which  was  first  used  in  England  in  a  race  in  1.S71.    The  general 

l'  the  sliding  seat  will   be  sufficiently  familiar.      Its  precise  mechani- 
cal .  been  very  ably  described  by  the  Rev.  E.  Warre,  o\  Eton,  in  the 

following  words  :  — 


68  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

"Mechanically  speaking,  in  rowing  the  water  is  the  fulcrum,  the  boat  is 
the  weight  to  be  moved,  the  oar  is  the  lever,  and  the  man  applies  the  power. 
The  leverage  is  most  powerful  when  applied  at  right  angles  to  the  weight ; 
but  in  the  problem  to  be  solved,  owing  to  the  motion  of  the  oar  itself 
through  the  water  and  the  motion  of  the  boat  through  the  water,  the  moment 
at  which  this  can  be  the  case  is  extremely  transient.  Could  any  satisfactory 
mechanism  be  devised  by  which  the  weight — that  is,  the  thowl  against  which 
he  rows — could  be  moved  forward  during  the  stroke,  while  the  oarsman  was 
still  in  the  position  to  exert  his  full  power  against  it,  we  might  expect  a  great 
increase  of  speed.  This,  however,  is  a  structural  problem  not  yet  solved. 
But  the  sliding  seat  in  some  measure  answers  the  purpose  by  enabling  the 
oarsman  or  sculler  to  continue  his  physical  effort  by  the  straightening  of  his 
legs  in  such  a  way  that  his  power  and  his  weight,  which  are  most  available  at 
the  beginning  of  the  stroke,  are  operating  in  the  water  for  a  longer  period 
during  each  stroke  than  could  be  if  he  were  on  a  fixed  seat.  The  gain  is 
much  less  than  that  of  a  moving  rowlock  would  be,  because,  owing  to  the 
rising  of  the  knees  when  the  slider  is  forward,  a  man  cannot  obtain  a  much 
greater  reach  forward  than  he  could  on  a  fixed  seat.  It  is  when  the  body 
has  moved  up  towards  the  perpendicular,  and  the  water  has  already  been  got 
hold  of,  that  the  advantage  of  the  sliding  seat  begins.  As  the  slider  moves 
back,  the  uncoiling  of  the  human  spring,  which  is  imbedded  in  the  stretcher, 
can  go  on  with  undiminished  force  for  the  distance  of  the  slide,  when  the 
pressure  of  the  legs  ceases  and  the  weight  of  the  body  is  again  entirely  thrown 
on  the  seat.  The  mechanical  advantage  is  here  mostly  after  the  rowlock,  and 
that  is  the  least  valuable  part  of  the  stroke,  especially  in  a  light  boat.  Still 
the  gain  is  considerable,  as  it  enables  more  weight  and  more  strength  to  be 
applied  to  the  oar  for  a  longer  portion  of  the  stroke. 

"  Further,  there  has  been  for  grown  men  a  physical  gain  in  that  the  in- 
creased length  of  stroke  enables  the  same  pace  to  be  attained  with  fewer 
strokes  per  minute.  The  pace  of  the  inferior  or  mediocre  crews  accordingly 
has  been  improved.  Moreover,  the  effort  of  springing  the  body  forward  to 
its  fullest  reach,  which  on  the  fixed  seat  was  necessary,  is  now  greatly  reduced 
by  the  mechanism  of  the  slide,  and  consequently  the  exertion  to  heart  and 
lungs  is  much  less.  This  is  a  gain  to  those  who,  by  reason  of  age  and  figure, 
are  not  so  lithe  and  active  as  in  boyhood,  but  it  has  been  a  loss  to  public 
school  crews,  who  could  make  up  formerly  by  pace  of  stroke  and  agility  for 
their  inferiority  in  strength  to  men."* 

* Health  Exhibition  Handbooks,  vol.  x. 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  69 

The  sliding  seat  is  estimated  to  give  a  gain  of  about  18  in.  in  the  length  of 
the  stroke  upon  a  9  in.  slide. 

"The  sliding  seat,"  writes  Mr.  Woodgate,  in  the  Badminton  Library  volume 
on  Boating,  "  decidedly  relieves  the  abdominal  muscles  and  respiratory  organs 
during  the  recovery.  The  point  wherein  a  tiring  oarsman  first  gives  way  is 
in  his  recovery,  because  of  the  relative  weakness  of  the  muscles  which  con- 
duct that  portion  of  the  action  of  the  stroke.  It  therefore  is  obvious  that  any 
contrivance  which  can  enable  a  man  to  recover  with  less  exertion  to  himself 
will  enable  him  to  do  more  work  in  the  stroke  over  the  whole  course,  and 
still  more  so  if  the  very  contrivance  which  aids  recovery  also  gives  extra 
power  to  the  stroke." 

The  increase  in  speed  has  not  been  so  great  as  might  have  been  imagined. 

Roiving  and  Sculling. 

Rowing,  it  is  needless  to  say,  involves  the  pulling  of  one  oar  with  both 
hands,  and  sculling  the  pulling  of  a  pair  of  sculls,  employing,  of  course,  one 
bond  to  each. 

The  details  of  the  stroke  in  rowing  should  be  well  understood  in  order 
that  the  muscular  features  of  the  act  might  be  recognized  and  the  qualities 
of  a  good  stroke  appreciated.  The  following  description  of  the  rowing 
stroke  by  the  Rev.  E.  Warre  is  precise  and  lucid,  and  can  hardly  be  improved 
upon  : — 

iment  the  oar  touches  the  body,  drop  the  hands  smartly  stJ 

down,  then  turn   the  wrists  sharply  and   at   once   shoot   out   the   bands   in   a 

ght  line   to  the  front,  inclining  the  body  forward   from   the   thigh  joints 

and  simultaneously  bring  up  tin-  slider,  regulating  the  time  by  the  swing  for- 

!  of  the  body  according  to  the  stroke.     Let  the  chest  and  stomach  come 

well  f<  iw  t.i,  the  shoulihr^  be  kept  hack,  the  inside  arm  be  straightened,  the 

le  wrist  a  little  raised,  the  0  ■!  in  the  ham!,,  hut  not  |  pon 

more  than  i-,  1  ■    to  maintain  the  blade  in  its  proper  straight  line  as  it 

goes  back,  the  head  kept  up,  the  eye-  fixed  OH  the  OUtside  shoulder  of  the 
m. 11,  ml  anih    oil  I    to    theil   full   extent, 

the  wrists  having  been  quickly  turned,  the  hands  must  he  raised  sharply,  and 
the  blade  of  the  oar  brought  to  its  full  depth  at  once.  At  that  moment, 
without  the  loss  of  a  thousandth  pari  of  a  second,  the  whole  weight  of  the 

body  must  he  thrown  on  to  the  oar  and  the  Stretcher  by  the  body  Springing 
back,  so  that  b    hold    of  th(  h arply  and    be    driven 


70  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

through  it  by  a  force  unwavering  and  uniform.  As  soon  as  the  oar  has  got 
hold  of  the  water,  and  the  beginning  of  the  stroke  has  been  effected  as  de- 
scribed, flatten  the  knees,  and  so,  using  the  muscles  of  the  legs,  keep  up  the 
pressure  of  the  beginning  uniform  through  the  backward  motion  of  the  body. 
Let  the  arms  be  rigid  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke.  When  the  body 
reaches  the  perpendicular,  let  the  elbows  be  bent  and  dropped  close  past  the 
sides  to  the  rear — the  shoulders  dropping  and  disclosing  the  chest  to  the 
front,  the  back,  if  anything,  curved  inwards  rather  than  outwards,  but  not 
strained  in  any  way.  The  body,  in  fact,  should  assume  a  natural  upright  sit- 
ting posture,  with  the  shoulders  well  thrown  back.  In  this  position  the  oar 
should  come  to  it  and  the  feather  commence." 

Among  the  particulars  to  be  noted  in  the  stroke  are  the  following.  The 
back  should  be  set  stiff  and  must  not  yield  as  the  stroke  is  pulled.  It 
should  be  straight  while  the  chest  comes  well  forward.  The  whole  trunk 
should  swing  as  a  rigid  column  from  the  hips,  moving  forwards  and  back- 
wards. The  main  pull  of  the  arms  is  from  the  shoulders.  The  biceps 
should  not  do  the  work  and  the  elbows  must  be  kept  well  to  the  side.  If 
this  latter  point  be  insisted  upon  the  stroke  can  scarcely  be  rowed  home  by 
the  arm  muscles.  When  an  oarsman  is  becoming  "  pumped,"  it  is  in  the 
recovery  that  he  feels  the  strain.  He  fails  to  shoot  the  hands  forward  from 
the  chest  the  moment  after  they  touch  that  point,  and  he  becomes  sluggish 
in  reaching  forward  to  take  a  fresh  hold  of  the  water. 

Sculling  is  in  all  essential  particulars  identical  with  rowing,  so  far  as  the 
muscular  movements  are  concerned.  It  involves,  however,  more  precision, 
more  skill,  more  practice.  The  sculler  has  to  acquire  the  art  of  balancing 
himself,  and  a  failure  to  ever  do  this  well  leads  often  to  a  fixed  bad  style, 
which  no  practice  appears  to  remove. 

The  remarks  already  made  apply  to  rowing  and  to  sculling  in  its  highest 
developments,  but  in  all  essentials  they  apply  to  the  ordinary  pleasure  boat. 
In  such  a  boat  there  is  no  need  of  great  speed,  there  is  no  sliding  seat  to  em- 
barrass an  already  complex  movement.  The  boat  is  steady  enough,  and  the 
oarsman  can  devote  all  his  energies  to  the  pulling. 

It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  many  boating  men  and  women  are  content 
simply  to  pull  the  boat  along.  They  care  nothing  about  the  order  of  their 
going,  they  are  perfectly  indifferent  as  to  style,  and  are  content  for  the  rest 
of  their  days  to  row  badly.  To  row  correctly  is  to  row  with  ease.  The  better 
the  style,  the  easier  the  movement  and  the  better  the  pace.     The  better  the 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  71 

style,  moreover,  the  more  complete  and  perfect  is  the  exercise.  Bad  rowing 
is  often  bad  exercise,  and  to  row  in  the  atrocious  manner  with  which  some 
holiday-makers  have  made  us  familiar  is  to  indulge  in  a  pursuit  of  very 
doubtful  utility. 

As  an  exercise,  sculling  may  be  considered  to  be  better  than  rowing.  To 
all  ordinary  individuals  boating  should  imply  a  knowledge  of  sculling,  and 
no  person  should  be  content  with  the  capacity  to  pull  one  oar. 

Sculling  involves  a  more  even  employment  of  all  the  muscles  of  the  body ; 
one  side  of  the  body  is  not  more  extensively  employed  than  is  the  other ; 
there  is  no  disposition  to  rotate  or  "screw  "  the  back,  or  to  pull,  as  it  were, 
from  one  side.  In  sculling,  the  muscles  of  the  two  sides  of  the  body  are 
equally  employed,  and  the  exercise  has  the  great  merit  of  being  perfectly 
symmetrical. 

The  Muscles  Involved. 

Let  us  imagine  a  man  sculling  in  an  ordinary  gig  with  a  fixed  seat.  He 
takes  a  good  grasp  of  the  sculls,  using  fully  the  muscles  of  the  hand  and  of 
the  fiexor  side  of  the  forearm.  He  throws  the  hands  forwards  to  take  the 
stroke,  using  the  extensor  muscles  of  the  arm,  the  pectorals,  the  serratus 
magnus  and  such  scapular  muscles  as  draw  the  upper  limb  forwards.  The 
body  is  at  the  same  time  thrown  forwards  by  the  contraction  of  the  abdominal 
muscles,  the  psoas  and  iliacus,  and  some  of  the  anterior  femoral  muscles. 
The  whole  back  is  kept  stiff,  and  the  trunk  swings  forwards  from  the  hip 
joints  only.  The  sculls  are  now  drawn  through  the  water,  the  muscles  of  the 
upper  arm  contract,  together  with  the  posterior  scapular  muscles  and  the 
imus  dorsi.  I  he  main  agent,  however,  in  effecting  the  stroke  i->  provided 
by  the  great  mass  of  the  extensor  muscles  of  the  back  and  by  the  powerful 
glutei  muscles.  The  man  rows  with  his  back,  not  with  his  arms.  In  pulling, 
he  presses  the  feet  against  the  stretcher,  contracting  Dearly  all  the  muscles  of 
the  lower  limb.     In  feathering,  he  calls  into  action  the  exl  I  die 

rm. 

Inasmuch  as  the  head  is  kepi  erect  and  the  chest  well  thrown  forward,  it 
will  !»•  seen  that  sculling  and  rowing  do  actually  engage  all  the  main  mu 
of  the  body. 

Aiding  scat  In-  employed,  then  the  1  \crcise  is  still  more  complete  and 
uniform,  for  the  muscles  of  the  lower  limb  .ne  used  to  a  -'ill  greater  extent 
in  drawing  the  body  forward  and  in  shooting  it  back.  Still  the  main  strain  in 
rowing  and    culling  tall.-,  upon  the  mUSClefl  of  the  back  and  hip. 


72  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

The  mechanics  of  sculling  can  be  readily  studied  in  Muybridge's  ingenious 
photographs,  and  reference  may  be  made  to  the  description  in  Keating's 
"Cyclopaedia"  (vol.  iv.,  photo,  iv.). 

The  idea,  often  expressed,  that  boating  involves  the  use  of  the  arms  only, 
is  even  more  ridiculous  than  the  equally  common  assertion  that  bicycling  in- 
volves the  use  of  the  legs  only.  A  muscular  man  going  into  hard  training  for 
rowing  will  find  that  his  biceps  muscles  will  actually  diminish  in  size. 

The  bad  oarsman  rows  or  sculls  with  his  biceps.  Such  an  individual  is 
often  to  be  seen  in  the  London  parks.  He  sits  with  his  back  limp  and 
arched,  and  very  probably  with  his  legs  tucked  away  under  the  thwart.  He 
leans  forwards  to  take  the  stroke,  grasps  the  water,  and  pulls  the  sculls 
through  simply  by  the  action  of  the  muscles  of  the  upper  limb  and  mainly  by 
the  biceps.  He  does  not  extend  the  trunk  beyond  the  perpendicular,  and 
the  manner  in  which  he  projects  his  elbows  has  been  caricatured  often  enough. 
The  movements  he  executes  are  not  those  of  the  oarsman,  and,  although  the 
half-hour's  pull  may  be  better  than  no  exercise  at  all,  it  tends  to  make  the 
individual  round-shouldered  and  clumsy,  and  to  develop  the  muscles  of  his 
arms  to  the  sacrifice  of  all  the  others. 

The  Adaptabilities  of  Boating. 

Boating  properly  carried  out  must  remain  one  of  the  most  perfect  forms  of 
muscular  exercise  we  possess.  The  degree  of  muscular  effort  involved  can 
be  regulated  to  any  degree,  and  a  girl  of  eleven  may  scull  with  as  much  style 
as  an  athlete  of  twenty. 

Boating  is  an  exercise  which  does  not  cause  breathlessness.  An  elderly 
man  can  pull  a  boat  day  after  day  on  a  long  river  tour  without  difficulty, 
provided  the  pace  be  moderate,  when  he  would  be  utterly  out  of  breath  on 
ascending  a  hill  or  even  a  great  flight  of  stairs.  It  can  be  indulged  in  by 
individuals  with  weak  hearts  and  weak  lungs,  provided,  of  course,  that  the 
pace  is  strictly  moderate. 

Boating  is  not  suited  for  the  subjects  of  hernia  nor  for  those  with  a  dispo- 
sition to  hernia.  The  posture  assumed  in  leaning  forwards  to  take  the  stroke 
and  the  contraction  of  the  abdominal  muscles  at  the  same  time  favor  a  her- 
nial protrusion. 

Boating,  however,  tends  to  develop  and  to  strengthen  the  abdominal  mus- 
cles, and  to  lessen  the  size  and  improve  the  tone  of  the  pendulous  abdomen 
not  uncommon  after  middle  life. 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  73 

Rowing  and  sculling  are  admirable  exercises  for  girls  and  women.  Ladies 
should  row  without  corsets,  or  with  corsets  of  the  slenderest  possible  make. 
Perhaps  no  exercise  is  better  suited  to  remedy  the  muscular  defects  which 
are  conspicuous  in  the  gentler  sex.  It  expands  the  chest,  strengthens  the 
back,  and  gives  tone  to  the  muscles  of  the  abdomen. 

Boating  should  be  recommended  with  certain  precautions,  and  of  course 
in  properly  selected  cases  to  the  subjects  of  lateral  curvature  of  the  spine, 
especially  to  those  who  exhibit  the  deformity  in  its  early  condition. 

Such  individuals  should  scull,  not  row.  All  those  who  take  to  boating 
should  first  learn  to  swim.  Boys  may  begin  to  learn  to  row  at  six,  and  girls 
at  eight.  It  is  a  matter  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  learner  be  well 
taught. 

It  is  well  to  begin  in  a  light  half-outrigged  boat  which  will  seat  two,  the 
teacher  and  the  pupil.  The  water  should  be  smooth.  The  pupil  should  be- 
gin by  pulling  one  scull  only,  rowing  for  equal  periods  upon  the  right  and  the 
left  side.  He  will  in  this  way  learn  the  rough  details  of  the  stroke  and  the 
rhythm  of  the  movement.     He  should  from  the  first  be  made  to  keep  time. 

The  exercise  with  one  scull  should  be  brief,  and  the  sooner  the  pupil 
takes  to  both  sculls  the  better.  There  is  usually  much  difficulty  with  the  left 
hand. 

As  soon  as  the  pupil  can  scull  moderately  well  he  should  row  behind  a  good 
oarsman,  and  in  this  way  he  will  pick  up  the  swing  of  the  movement  and  the 
proper  points  of  the  stroke. 

Sea  /  i  -  inferior  to  river  rowing  as  an  exercise  :  the  boat  is  heavy, 

the  gunwale  is  high  out  of  the  water,  the  stroke  is  short,  and  the  movement 
i-,  not  susceptible  of  the  finish  possible  in  a  river  boat. 

e  who  have  rowed  much  on  the  sea  will  probably  never  row  well  on 
the  river.  The  exercise  involves  more  muscular  exertion,  which  is,  however, 
Of  .  more  clumsy  and  unfinished    kind.     To  row  a  sea  boat  the  in- 

dividual  must  be  strong.  Sim  rowing  is  not  well  adapted  for  children  <>r  for 
those  who  are  muscularly  feeble  ;  and,  while  as  an  exen  i  c  it  has  admirable 
points,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  thai  on  fresh  water  alone  fa  the  pursuit  of 

boating  capable  of  assuming  its  most    perfect  form. 

inoeing. 

For  the  purpose  of  the  present  paper  canoes  may  be  considered  I  1  belong 
to  two  1 1  ■  -'■-    the  Rob  Roy  <  inoe  and  the  Canadian. 

6 


74  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

In  the  former  the  canoeist  sits  amidships  with  his  lower  limbs  extended  ■ 
straight  upon  the  floor  of  the  craft.     The  paddle  is  of  considerable  length, 
and  has  a  blade  at  either  end.     The  canoeist  holds  it  about  breast  high,  and 
drives  first  one  blade  through  the  water  and  then   the  other.     His  back  is 
supported  by  a  rest. 

In  this  form  of  canoeing  the  muscular  exertion  involved  is  limited  to  the 
muscles  of  the  arms  and  shoulders,  including  the  pectorals,  trapezius,  ser- 
ratus  magnus,  and  latissimus  dorsi.  The  muscles  of  the  neck  and  upper 
part  of  the  back  are  concerned,  but  the  body  below  the  thorax  is  prac- 
tically motionless.  The  exercise,  therefore,  is  one  of  limited  muscular  ap- 
plicability. 

The  exercise  is  good  for  those  who  wish  to  develop  the  arms  or  who  from 
some  deformity  or  defect  are  unable  to  use  the  lower  limbs.  It  is  not  an  ex- 
ercise to  be  recommended  to  those  who  aim  at  developing  the  whole  muscu- 
lar system,  or  who  are  the  subjects  of  any  spinal  weakness. 

In  the  Canadian  canoe  as  adopted  for  use  in  England  the  canoeist  sits 
at  the  extreme  stern,  either  on  the  floor  or  upon  a  seat  nearly  flush  with  the 
gunwale,  and  with  his  feet  on  a  stretcher.  He  has  a  short  paddle  with  a 
single  blade.  He  paddles  upon  one  side  of  the  craft  only,  and  steers  by 
manipulating  the  blade  at  the  completion  of  each  stroke.  In  all  but  the 
smallest  form  of  Canadian  canoe  a  second  seat  is  provided  close  to  the  prow 
for  a  second  paddle.  The  fore  paddle  may  be  shorter,  and  is  worked  at  a 
diminished  advantage,  and  the  steering  of  the  craft  must  still  remain  with 
the  paddle  in  the  stern. 

The  Canadian  canoe  involves  a  much  more  complete  form  of  exercise 
than  does  the  Rob  Roy  canoe.  The  canoeist  has  no  support  for  his  back. 
He  must  keep  himself  erect  by  muscular  effort.  In  effecting  the  stroke  he 
employs,  not  only  the  muscles  of  the  upper  limb,  but  also  the  muscles  of  the 
trunk.  The  whole  body  undergoes  some  rotation  in  the  vertical  axis  at  each 
stroke.  After  long  paddling,  a  sense  of  exhaustion  is  felt  in  the  back  and 
about  the  loins,  but  not  in  the  arms.  The  canoeist  has  also  to  balance  him- 
self, and  as  the  Canadian  canoe  is  carvel-built  and  keelless,  this  involves 
some  extra  muscular  expenditure.  The  after-paddler  can  make  considerable 
use  of  his  legs,  moreover ;  a  help  which  is,  to  a  great  extent,  denied  to  the 
paddler  in  the  bow  of  the  canoe.  The  canoeist  should  change  his  side  from 
time  to  time — in  other  words,  should  not  paddle  for  too  long  a  time  at  a 
stretch  upon  one  side.  Paddling  upon  one  side  tends  to  produce  much  lat- 
eral bending  of  the  vertebral  column. 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  75 

This  exercise  is  not  well  adapted  for  the  weakly,  nor  for  those  who  have 
weak  backs  and  a  disposition  to  lateral  curvature.  For  the  robust  it  is  ad- 
mirable, and  forms  a  very  pleasant  variation  to  rowing  or  sculling. 

A  voyage  in  a  canoe  usually  involves  exercise  of  the  most  varied  kind  : 
there  are  hard  paddling  against  a  stream,  nervous  steering  down  a  rapid,  the 
dragging  of  the  craft  over  shallows  and  past  milldams,  and  the  very  arduous 
task  of  making  a  way  through  thick  rushes  and  weeds. 

Cycling. 

The  history  of  athletic  sports  provides  probably  no  more  remarkable  feat- 
ure than  is  afforded  by  the  introduction  and  development  of  cycling.  Twenty 
years  ago  the  bicycle  was  unknown  in  this  country.  Even  fifteen  years  ago 
riders  upon  bicycles  were  regarded  as  little  other  than  acrobats  and  mounte- 
banks. Within  so  short  a  period  this  form  of  athletic  exercise  has  developed 
with  almost  incredible  rapidity  and  with  phenomenal  vigor.  Cyclists  are  now 
to  be  counted  in  tens  of  thousands ;  the  sport  has  been  taken  up  by  individ- 
uals of  all  ages  and  in  all  stations  of  life,  and  has  been  enthusiastically  patron- 
ized by  women  as  well  as  by  men. 

The  history  of  cycling  is  very  admirably  given  by  Mr.  G.  Lacy  Hillier — 
himself  a  well-known  rider — in  the  Badminton  volume  on  "Cycling." 

The  general  features  of  the  cycles  now  in  use  must  be  familiar  enough. 
There  are  two  forms  of  bicycle,  the  "Ordinary "  and  the  "  Safety."  The 
Ordinary  represents  the  earlier  pattern.  In  this  machine  the  wheel  is  driven 
by  the  direct  action  of  the  pedals.  The  size  of  the  wheel  depends  upon  the 
height  or  "  the  reach"  of  the  individual  rider.  A  diameter  of  50  inches  will 
represent  an  average  si/e.  With  this  wheel  the  rider  steers,  and  upon  it  he 
balances  himself.      In  propelling  this  machine  there    is  no  waste  of  muscular 

force.    The  rider  is  placed  directly  "over  his  work,"  or,  as  it  would  be 
pressed  with  reference  to  other  exercises,  "close  to  his  work."     No  power  is 

lost  upon  COg-wheels  and   chains,  and   the  weight  of  the   body  (  in   he  admir- 
ably utilized  in  aiding  progression. 

The  Safety  bicycle  represents  the  machine  of  the  immediate  future.  The 
varieties  of  this  cycle  ate  legion,  hut  the  form  mOSl  Commonly  used  is  founded 

upon  what  is  known  as  " the  Rover  "  pattern. 

ented  by  a  machine  with  the  following  charac 

The  two  wheels  are   c  .ni|  ur  itivelv  small,  and   an-   either  of  equal 
or  are  nearly  so.       The  diameter  of  e  u  h  will  be  about  28  or  30  inches.     The 


76  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

front  wheel  is  the  steering-wheel,  and  with  it  the  handles  are  connected  :  its 
movement,  so  far  as  the  act  of  steering  is  concerned,  is  effected  through  a 
nearly  horizontal  joint,  "  the  head."  The  hinder  wheel  is  the  driving  wheel. 
It  is  not  propelled  by  the  direct  action  of  the  pedals.  The  pedals  act  upon 
a  small  cogged  or  toothed  wheel  carrying  a  chain,  and  through  this  chain  the 
movement  is  communicated  to  the  rear  wheel.  The  rider  sits  directly  over 
the  chain-wheel  to  which  the  pedals  and  their  cranks  are  attached,  and  is 
therefore  placed  between  the  two  running  wheels  of  the  bicycle.  The  ma- 
chine is  said  to  be  "geared."  If  the  two  pulley-wheels  with  which  the  chain 
is  connected  are  of  equal  size  the  machine  is  said  to  be  "  level-geared."  In 
such  case  one  complete  revolution  of  the  pedal  involves  one  complete  revo- 
lution of  the  driving-wheel.  If  the  pulley  wheels  with  which  the  chain  is 
connected  are  of  unequal  size,  and  if  the  wheel  connected  with  the  pedal  is 
the  larger,  the  machine  is  said  to  be  "  geared-up."  In  such  case  the  pedal 
revolutions  are  fewer  than  the  revolutions  of  the  driving-wheel.  The  Safety 
bicycle  is  usually  "  geared  up  to  54  ;  "  that  is  to  say,  the  relation  between  the 
wheel  moving  the  chain  and  the  wheel  moved  by  it  is  such  that  the  driving- 
wheel,  which  has  an  actual  diameter  of  28  inches,  revolves  at  each  complete 
turn  of  the  pedal  through  a  range  of  movement  equal  to  that  made  by  one 
complete  revolution  of  a  wheel  with  a  diameter  of  54  inches. 

Some  tricycles  are  "  geared  down,"  by  which  term  is  implied  the  fact  that 
the  hinder  of  the  two  pulley-wheels  is  the  smaller,  and  therefore  more  than 
one  revolution  of  the  pedal  is  required  to  produce  one  revolution  of  the 
driving-wheel. 

In  this  question  of  gearing  it  must  be  remembered  that  one  factor  of  the 
equation,  viz.,  the  strength  of  the  rider,  is  a  fixed  quantity,  and  that  either 
speed  or  power  must  be  sacrificed  when  the  other  conditions  of  the  problem 
are  varied.  If  the  machine  be  geared  up,  the  rider  can  make  fewer  revolu- 
tions of  the  pedal  than  would  be  required  if  the  gearing  were  level,  but  he 
must  employ  more  force.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  machine  be  geared 
down,  an  increased  number  of  movements  of  the  foot  is  required ;  but  the 
amount  of  force  involved  is  much  less.  A  young  man  of  light  weight  or  an 
individual  of  feeble  muscular  power  may  prefer  to  use  his  legs  with  greater 
activity,  provided  he  can  employ  a  lesser  degree  of  muscular  effort.  Such  an 
individual  may  prefer  a  cycle  geared  low.  A  man  of  more  advanced  years, 
of  more  than  average  weight,  and  of  considerable  muscular  strength,  would 
probably  be  glad  to  expend  an  undue  am  Hint  of  force  on  each  stroke  of  the 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  77 

rather  than  to  feel  the  necessity  of  moving  his  pedals  rapidly.  Such  a 
rider  would  select  a  machine  with  a  higher  gearing. 

While  a  roadster  Safety  will  usually  be  geared  to  54,  a  racer  Safety  of  the 
same  type  may  be  geared  to  63. 

The  Humber  Roadster  tricycle  ("  gents'  light  cripper  ")  is  geared  to  57  in 
the  maker's  catalogue,  the  ladies'  tricycle  of  the  same  pattern  to  54,  the  cor- 
responding racer  cripper  to  63. 

The  weight  of  a  racing  Safety  may  be  reduced  to  20  lb.  complete.  The 
weight  of  a  racing  tricycle  (Humber  Cripper)  is  given  as  30  lb.  A  roadster 
Safety  weighs  from  about  36  to  42  lb.     A   Roadster  tricycle  may  scale  from 

45  t0  56  ,b- 

The  tricycle  is  well  represented  by  the  excellent  machine  known  as  the 
Humber  Cripper.  In  this  tricycle  the  front  or  steering  wheel  has  a  diameter 
of  24  in.,  the  two  driving  wheels  of  30  in.  A  single  chain  is  employed.  The 
saddle  is  placed  well  over  the  pedals,  and  the  machine  in  all  general  features 
is  based  upon  the  mechanical  lines  of  a  Safety  bicycle.  The  introduction  of 
the  ingenious  ball-bearing  joint  to  cycles  of  all  kinds  has  reduced  the  amount 
of  friction  in  running  to  a  minimum. 

The  Safety  bicycle  if  taken  against  any  obstacle  sufficient  to  stop  the  front 
wheel  merely  falls  over  on  its  side.  The  rider's  feet  are  so  close  to  the 
ground  that  it  needs  no  very  great  inclination  of  the  machine  to  enable  him 
to  bring  one  foot  to  the  ground,  and  so  prevent  a  fall. 

The  term  "  S  ilety  "  is  well  merited.  An  accident,  when  it  occurs,  is  prob- 
ably the  fault  of  the  rider  alone,  and  is  inexcusable.  There  are  m  my  who 
have  ridden  these  machines  for  years  over  some  thousands  of  miles  of  r  1. 
and  who  have  yet  never  met  with  what  may  be  termed  an  accident,  or  even 
a  n  isty  fall. 

One  disadvanl  ige  which  has  been  urged  against  all  cycles  is  that  of  vibra- 
tion.   There  is  do  doubt  that  long-continued  vibration  communicated  to  the 

body  i->  injurious.      It    is    unpleasant,  it    induces  fatigue,  and    leads    to    earlier 

ustion  of  the  must  les. 

vibration  ire  le  -  fell  in  thi  ind  upon  the  bodies  of 

under  eighteen,  who  still  po  less  many  epiphyseal  cartilages,  a  long- 
continued  vibration  may  tell  but  little.     But  in  older  individuals,  in  th 

whoM-  l»idie>  h  ive   heroine  more    ii-id    in    the    process    of  development,  and 

especially  in  persons  with  a  sensitive  nervous  B)  item,  vibration  has  certainly 
an  unfavorabli  They  return  from  a  long  ride  over  rough  roads  with 


78 


PHYSICAL   EDUCATION. 


an  undue  sense  of  fatigue — they  feel  "shaken,"  the  back  aches,  the.  arm 
muscles  are  a  little  tremulous,  and  there  often  follow  a  headache  and  a  sleep- 
less night. 

Vibration  has  been  to  a  large  extent  overcome  by  the  use  of  "  cushion  " 
or  "  pneumatic  "  tires,  or  by  means  of  a  suspending  spring,  such  as  has 
been  introduced,  with  the  greatest  success,  in  what  is  known  as  the  "  Whip- 
pet "  bicycle.  The  Whippet  machine  may  be  said  to  bear  the  same  rela- 
tion to  the  usual  Safety  bicycle  which  a  cart  with  springs  bears  to  one  with- 
out springs. 

The  following  records  will  give  an  idea  of  the  possible  speed  which  can  be 
attained  on  a  cycle  : — 


Half-mile , 

One  mile 

Three  miles. . . , 

Ten  miles 

Twenty  miles  . 
Fifty  miles .... 
Hundred  miles 


Bicycle. 


Tricycle. 


h.  m. 

s. 

h. 

m. 

s. 

i 

8 

1 

17 

2 

20 

2 

37 

7 

40 

8 

6 

26 

40 

28 

13 

55 

0 

5<> 

40 

2  25 

26 

2 

3* 

44 

5  5° 

5 

6 

9 

26 

Cycling  as  an  Exercise. 

Bicycling. — A  ride  upon  a  bicycle  involves  not  only  an  admirable  muscular 
exercise,  but  it  involves  of  necessity  exertion  in  the  open  air.  The  exercise 
is  continuous  and  not  intermittent ;  it  can  be  regulated  to  any  degree,  and 
can  be  indulged  in  equally  by  the  athlete  and  the  weakling. 

He  who  owns  a  bicycle  has  at  his  command  one  of  the  most  admirable 
and  certainly  one  of  the  least  expensive  means  of  traveling.  He  is  de- 
pendent solely  upon  himself,  and  can  without  difficulty  travel  fifty  miles  a 
day.  No  horse  could  compete  in  endurance  and  in  long  distances  with  the 
bicycle  rider. 

Cycling  has  undoubtedly  done  more  than  has  any  other  form  of  physical 
exercise  to  improve  the  bodily  condition  of  the  city  clerk  and  the  shop  as- 
sistant. The  lad  who  is  pent  up  in  a  close  office  all  day  has  now  no  diffi- 
culty in  finding  a  means  for  well  occupying  the  summer  evening  or  the  few 
hours  at  his  disposal  before  the  work  of  the  day  begins.  He  has  merely 
to  mount  his  bicycle,  and  in  an  hour  he  is  ten  miles  away  from  the  din  of 
city  life,  and  is  breathing  a  clearer  and   brisker  air.     He  who  is  an  early 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  79 

riser  can  in  the  summer  months  well  manage  a  twenty-mile  ride  before 
breakfast. 

Unlike  the  player  of  cricket  or  football  or  the  rowing  man,  the  cyclist  is 
dependent  upon  no  one  but  himself.  His  means  of  exercise  is  always  at  hand, 
and  he  can  occupy  a  spare  half-hour  or  the  entire  afternoon  with  the  same 
amount  of  preparation. 

The  specific  features  of  the  exercise  of  bicycling  may  best  be  reviewed  by 
discussing  the  objections  which  have  been  urged  against  the  sport. 

1.  It  is  said  to  be  dangerous.  This  objection  without  doubt  applied  to  the 
high-wheel  bicycle,  but  it  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  just  as  regards  the  more 
modern  machine — the  Safety.  The  rider  rides  with  his  feet  but  a  few  inches 
from  the  ground.  If  he  is  falling  he  has  simply  to  step  off.  The  machine 
cannot  turn  "head  over  heels  ;"  it  can  merely  fall  upon  its  side.  The  brakes 
now  applied  to  these  machines  are  so  strong  that  they  can  bring  the  bicycle 
to  a  standstill  in  a  moment. 

The  most  serious  accidents  have  occurred  in  riding  through  crowded 
streets  ;  and  unless  a  rider  is  perfect  at  his  work,  and  is  as  quick  as  a  hare,  he 
is  merely  foolhardy  if  he  attemps  to  ride  through  a  very  busy  thoroughfare. 

Bicycling  may  be  said  to  be  less  dangerous  than  riding  on  horseback, 
especially  when  the  distances  travelled  are  taken  into  account,  and  to  be  cer- 
tainly less  ri^ky  than  skating. 

2.  A  second  objection  to  the  bicycle  is  that  it  is  a  very  partial  exercise, 
and  that  it  involves  the  use  of  the  muscles  of  the  legs  only.  It  may  be  said 
at  once  that  the  first  difficulty  of  bicycle  riding  is  not  the  propelling  of  the 
machine,  but  the  maintenance  of  a  proper  balance.  The  learner  after  his 
half-hour  exercise  will  not  complain  of  aching  in  his  legs,  but  of  aching  in  his 
arms,  and  to  .1  lessei  degree,  in  his  hack.    'I  he  beginner  is  apt  to  believe  that 

the  whole   strain  of  the  exer<  ise  comes   upon  the   forearms.      In  other  words, 
the  grip  of  the  steering  wind  and  the  easy,  immediate,  and  complete  control 
of  th  a  pari  of  the  machine  are  the  first  principles  in  bicycle  riding.     I  ■ 
the  upright  p  tany  muscular  n  its  are  required,  and  in 

■  d(  illy  all  the  mu  ■<  lea  of  die  trunk  are  concerned. 
In  com  e  of  time  balancing  becomes  not  onlj  easy  bu(  quite  automatic ; 
ami  while  it  is  true  thai   the  upright  pasture  is  finally  retained  with  a 
modified  amounl  of  mu  1  ul  d,  still  an  exti 

involved  even  if  the  power  exert  d  be  slight 

•  for  some  hours  without  .  rt  f>r  the  back  i 


80  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

quite  insignificant  exercise,  and  after  a  long  ride  the  bicyclist  finds  that  he 
has  been  doing  more  with  his  back  than  he  thought. 

So  far  as  the  movements  of  the  legs  are  concerned,  an  opinion  of  bicycling 
as  a  muscular  exercise  should  not  be  formed  by  observing  the  riders  one 
often  sees  in  the  streets  of  a  great  city  on  Sunday  or  on  the  suburban  roads 
on  a  bank  holiday. 

The  ill-taught  or  inexperienced  rider  rides  from  his  hips  ;  he  moves  his 
lower  limbs  like  pistons ;  his  action  is  extreme  ;  his  ankle  is  fixed  ;  his  foot 
and  leg  move  as  one. 

Pedalling  is,  to  a  great  extent,  a  matter  of  the  ankle-joint.  The  more  the 
ankle-joint  is  employed  the  more  is  muscular  power  economized,  and  the 
more  graceful  is  the  rider's  movement. 

While  bicycling  does  certainly  involve  in  the  main  the  muscles  of  the 
lower  extremities,  it  at  the  same  time  gives  excellent  employment  to  the  mus- 
cles of  the  upper  limb  (especially  of  the  forearm)  and  to  the  muscles  of 
the  trunk. 

Cycling  does  not  tend  to  develop  the  chest  or  exercise  the  great  muscles 
passing  from  the  trunk  to  the  upper  limb,  and  herein  lies  the  defect  of  the 
sport  as  an  exercise.  It  cannot  be  recommended  as  a  predominating  mode 
of  exercise  to  a  tall,  lanky  lad  with  a  narrow  chest  and  a  stooping  back. 
Such  an  individual  should  take  to  rowing  and  leave  the  wheel  alone. 

3.  In  the  third  place  it  is  said  that  bicycle  riding  induces  a  very  pernicious 
posture  of  the  body — a  posture  which  has  been  well  caricatured  by  Du  Maurier 
in  the  pages  of  "  Punch."  The  posture  complained  of  can  be  seen  any  day 
among  those  who  hire  a  bicycle  now  and  then  for  an  hour  and  tear  wildly 
through  the  streets  thereon.  The  rider  is  leaning  so  far  forwards  as  to  have ' 
his  body  nearly  horizontal.  His  back  is  bowed  and  arched,  his  elbows  stick 
out  like  the  limbs  of  a  startled  cat,  his  chest  is  almost  upon  the  handle  bar, 
and  his  chin  is  thrust  well  ahead. 

This  attitude  is,  to  some  extent,  a  necessity  upon  the  racing  track,  and 
there  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  practically  essential  in  riding  at  the  highest  pos- 
sible speed. 

For  riding  upon  the  road  it  is  ridiculous,  and  as  out  of  place  as  the  posture 
of  a  jockey  at  the  finish  of  a  horserace  would  be  in  an  individual  taking  a 
canter  in  Rotten  Row. 

This  absurd  attitude  when  assumed  by  riders  on  the  road  may  be  put 
down  in  part  to  sheer  ignorance,  in  part  to  bad  teaching,  and  in  part  to  a 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  Si 

foolish  imitation  of  the  racing  man.     It  is  unnecessary,  inelegant,  and  dis- 
tinctly injurious. 

The  rider  should  sit  quite  upright,  with  his  back  straight  and  with  the 
upper  part  of  the  body  as  still  as  possible.  The  head  should  be  erect,  the 
shoulders  well  thrown  back,  and  the  elbows  at  the  sides.  He  should  sit, 
moreover,  well  to  the  back  of  his  saddle,  and,  as  one  writer  expresses  it, 
"  push  cut  in  front,  using  the  saddle  to  push  from."  The  handles  of  the 
machines  are  now  made  so  as  to  render  a  perfectly  erect  position  possible  ; 
and  in  ordering  a  machine  it  is  important  that  this  matter  of  the  handles 
should  be  attended  to. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  some  riders  who  have  been  utterly  careless  of  their 
attitude  have  to  thank  the  bicycle  for  rounded  shoulders  and  a  stooping  back. 

4.  It  is  said  that  in  cycling  injurious  pressure  is  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
perinreum,  and  that  perinatal  abscess,  urinary  fistula,  and  other  troubles  have 
resulted  therefrom.  The  writer  has  not  been  able  to  find  any  evidence  to 
support  this  assertion. 

It  is  possible  that  cycling  may  lead  to  mishief  if  practiced  by  a  patient 
with  an  inflamed  urethra  ;  it  is  conceivable  that  it  may  act  injuriously  in  the 
subjects  of  urethral  stricture  and  enlarged  prostate.  For  even  this  last- 
named  possibility  there  is  very  little  scientific  support.  Among  tricycle 
riders  the  writer  is  acquainted  with  more  than  one  subject  of  prostatic, 
hypertrophy,  and  by  such  individuals  he  has  been  assured  that  cycling  causes 

nation  of  such  symptoms  as  they  present.     In  the  advanced  sta 
of   prostatic    trouble   in   elderly   men,  when   vesical    symptoms  are   present, 
cycling  could  scarcely  be  practiced. 

In  perfectly  healthy  individuals  it  may  be  stated  that  cycling  does  not 
produce  an  injurious  degree  of  pressure  upon  the  perinseum. 

In    the   modern   saddle  a  suspended   siip  of  leather  is   the  only  part  which 
comes  in  actual  contact  with  the  perina'Uin.      No  metal-work  can  cause  dire  t 
re  upon  that  part. 
Any  discomfort  about  the  perinseum  in  riding  is  probably  due  either  to  a 

form    Of   saddle    ill-adapted    to   the    individual    rider,  or  to  a  had    attitude 
sinned  in  riding. 

habit  of  stooping  forwards,  which  has  been  already  condemned,  brings 
the  perinseum  unduly  upon  the  saddle,  and  tor  this  reason,  if  for  no  other, 
ttitude  is  to  he  strongly  opp< 
In  riding,  the  weight  of  the  body  rests  upon  the  tuberosities  of  the  ischia. 

These  points  alone  should  hear  the  pressure. 


82  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

Many  bicyclists  wear  suspensory  bandages,  on  the  ground  that  the  testes  are 
occasionally  pressed  between  the  body  and  the  saddle.  Such  a  precaution  is 
unnecessary  if  the  rider  will  make  up  his  mind  to  sit  his  machine  properly. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  long-continued  pressure  upon  the  tuber  ischii  may 
lead  to  some  pain  along  the  long  scrotal  nerve,  and  may  induce  an  enlarge- 
ment of  the  bursa  over  that  process  of  bone. 

The  circumstance  is,  however,  very  rare,  and  is  no  more  likely  to  occur 
after  cycling  than  it  is  after  daily  riding  in  a  third-class  railway  carriage. 

5.  Cycling  is  accused  of  producing  varicose  veins  in  the  leg,  and  hernia. 
The  case  of  the  first-named  affection  is  considered  elsewhere,  and  need  not 
be  again  dealt  with. 

With  regard  to  hernia  there  is  little  to  add  to  what  has  been  already  said, 
except  to  point  out  one  fact.  It  is  true  that  in  easy  riding  the  abdominal 
muscles  are  but  little  used,  and  that,  therefore,  little  pressure  is  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  abdominal  viscera. 

Indeed,  in  ordinary  riding  the  abdominal  muscles  have  singularly  little  to 
do.  This  circumstance  may  appear  to  render  bicycling  a  suitable  exercise 
for  those  who  are  disposed  to  hernia.  It  must,  however,  be  noted  on  the 
other  side,  that  the  attitude  of  the  rider  tends  to  so  relax  the  tissues  about 
the  hernial  orifices  as  to  render  the  circumstances  favourable  for  the  descent 
of  a  hernia.  When  the  rider  "puts  on  pace  "  in  racing  or  in  avoiding  an  ob- 
stacle, he  leans  forwards,  throws  his  abdominal  muscles  into  action,  and  places 
himself  in  a  condition  certainly  favourable  for  the  formation  of  a  rupture.  In 
"  mounting  "  also  a  sudden  and  pronounced  contraction  of  the  belly  muscles 
is  called  for,  and  that,  too,  while  the  individual's  body  is  flexed. 

It  may  be  said,  therefore,  that  bicycle  riding  should  be  avoided  by  those 
who  have  weak  inguinal  regions  or  a  disposition  to  hernia,  and  that  it  should 
not  be  practised  by  the  actually  ruptured. 

Bicycling  is  well  suited  for  the  young,  nimble,  and  active  ;  it  is,  however, 
not  ill-adapted  to  the  middle-aged  and  to  those  who  have  lost  the  elasticity  of 
youth.  A  man  of  forty,  weighing  13  or  even  14  stone,  may  take  to  bicycling 
as  an  exercise,  may  attain  considerable  proficiency  as  a  rider,  and  may 
derive  unmixed  benefit  from  the  pursuit.  He  needs  be  nimble  enough  to 
mount  and  to  dismount  quickly,  but  this  involves  little  more  agility  than  is 
required  to  enter  or  to  leave  an  omnibus  while  in  motion.  Bicycling  is  not 
adapted  for  men  past  middle  life,  and  there  are  very  few  riders  who  may  be 
classed  as  old  men. 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  S3 

The  exercise  is  admirable  for  all  who  require  development  in  the  lower 
extremities  and  who  complain  of  being  "  weak  in  the  loins."  Those  who 
are  disposed  to  phthisis,  or  who  desire  to  develop  their  lung  capacity,  should 
take  up  some  other  exercise  than  bicycling.  It  is  not  perhaps  quite  the 
exercise  for  the  timid  and  nervous,  and  it  should  not  be  adopted  by  the 
subjects  of  urethral  or  prostatic  disease,  of  hernia,  of  varicose  veins,  or  of 
varicocele. 

The  exercise  appears  to  have  a  very  beneficial  effect  in  relieving  chronic 
constipation,  and  is  adopted  with  advantage  by  those  who  are  the  subjects  of 
dyspepsia,  haemorrhoids,  and  functional  disorders  of  the  liver. 

As  in  other  forms  of  exercise,  racing  and  the  breaking  of  records  should 
be  left  to  the  young,  well-trained,  strong,  and  athletic,  and  the  acquiring  of 
tricks  in  riding  to  the  acrobat,  who  has  to  live  by  his  eccentricities.  The 
ordinary  rider  when  touring  should  satisfy  himself  with  a  pace  of  not  more 
than  ten  miles  an  hour,  and  a  distance  not  exceeding  fifty  miles  in  the  day. 
The  bicyclist  should  be  well  equipped,  should  wear  well-cut,  or  better  still, 
well-woven  breeches,  should  be  clad  entirely  in  wool,  and  should  burden 
himself  with  as  little  luggage  as  possible.  He  should  avoid  tight-fitting  shoes, 
stiff  collars,  braided  uniforms,  gauntlets,  rubber-soled  shoes,  and  waterproof 
suits.  The  only  waterproof  worn  should  take  the  form  of  a  loose  cape.  The 
best  shoes  are  thin  leather  walking  shoes. 

vcling. —  In  tricycling  the  muscles  of  the  lower  extremities  are  almost 
the  only  ones  involved.  No  balance  has  to  be  maintained,  and  the  steering 
■  complished  with  a  very  small  amount  of  muscular  exertion.  The  rider 
has  to  maintain  the  body  erect,  and  must  thus  employ  the  muscles  of  the 
trunk.  As  an  exercise,  tricycling  is  undoubtedly  inferior  to  bicycling.  The 
'line  is,  moreover,  comparatively  large  and  cumbrous,  and  in  a  small 
London  house  is  perhaps  with  difficulty  disposed  of.     It  cannot  be  so  well 

conveyed  from  pi  u  e  l<>  place,  and  when  on  a  tOUT  the  ridei  must  always  seek 
a  shelter  fur  In.  m.i<  hine.      The  small   si/e  of  the  bicycle  and    the  convenient 
manner  in  which  it  can  be  disposed  of  ate  among  it-,  greatest  adv. mt 
The  trii  \(  le  rider  must  keep  to  main  or  principal  roads.      The  bicycll 

idvanl  ige  of  a  footpath.    The  machine  makes  three  tracks,  and  upon  an 
uneven  or  frozen  road  with  sharp  ruts  the  tricycle  has  very  decided  disad- 
van!  iges  ovei  the  bi<  y<  le. 
While  in  touring  the  bicyclist  can  make  ten  miles  an  hour,  the  tri<  ycle 

rider  will  have  to  content  himself  with  eight.      <  »n  the  Other  hand,  the  advan 


84  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

tages  of  the  tricycle  are  the  following  :  The  machine  is  very  easy  to  ride, 
and  can  be  ridden  at  once  and  without  any  teaching.  No  balancing  is  re- 
quired. The  machine  can  be  driven  with  less  muscular  exertion,  and  by 
altering  the  gearing  a  machine  can  be  adapted  to  almost  every  grade  of 
muscular  capacity.  The  tricycle  can  be  ridden  by  the  old,  the  nervous,  the 
moderately  feeble,  the  lame.  It  can  be  ridden  by  ladies  and  young  girls. 
At  the  same  time,  with  an  athletic  rider  a  great  speed  can  be  attained  on  the 
machine  and  enormous  distances  covered. 

Three  great  and  very  decided  advantages  of  the  tricycle  are  these  :  the 
rider  can  stop  the  machine,  and  can  rest  and  enjoy  the  scenery  without  dis- 
mounting ;  he  can  ride  without  taking  very  minute  note  of  the  road ;  he  can 
carry  a  considerable  quantity  of  luggage. 

Tricycling  is  a  most  admirable  exercise  for  those  past  middle  life.  They 
can  take  their  exercise  without  fear  and  without  trouble,  and  can  moderate 
their  exertions  to  any  degree.  It  can  be  made  a  violent  exercise  or  a  very 
gentle  one.  It  throws  no  great  strain  upon  the  heart  or  lungs.  It  appears 
to  have  a  good  effect  upon  dyspeptics  and  the  subjects  of  chronic  constipa- 
tion. It  can  be  indulged  in  within  limits  by  the  subjects  of  hernia.  It  in- 
volves all  the  advantages  attending  exercise  in  the  open. 

Cycling  for  Ladies  and  Girls. 

Tricycling  is  extensively  and  enthusiastically  adopted  by  many  ladies  and 
young  girls.  Many  have  attained  considerable  proficiency  at  the  sport.  The 
luxury  of  a  tandem  ride  appears  to  be  keenly  appreciated  :  the  freedom  the 
lady  tricyclist  enjoys,  and  the  wide  tracks  of  country  she  can  cover  in  com- 
pany with  her  brother,  husband,  or  other  friend,  are  strong  attractions  for  the 
vigorously  inclined. 

It  is  doubtful  if  tricycling  can  be  declared  to  be  a  good  or  suitable  exer- 
cise for  young  women  and  young  girls. 

It  is  not  a  severe  exercise,  it  is  true ;  and,  indeed,  the  amount  of  muscular 
exertion  demanded  can  be  very  precisely  regulated.  Many  ladies  are  em- 
phatic in  their  advocacy  of  the  claims  of  tricycling  to  be  considered  a  very 
suitable,  very  beneficial,  and  quite  harmless  exercise  for  females. 

It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  what  applies  to  one  woman  may  not 
apply  to  another,  and  that  arguments  applicable  to  the  middle-aged  may  not 
be  equally  suited  to  the  young. 

The  precise  evidence  which  is  required  to  decide  the  question  of  the  value 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  85 

of  tricycling  for  women  and  girls  is  a  little  difficult  to  obtain  and  to  formu- 
late. 

These  points  may  be  drawn  attention  to. 

It  is  a  question  whether  an  exercise  involving  extensive  use  of  the  lower 
limbs  and  of  the  muscles  about  the  pelvis  is  an  unmixed  good  during  the 
years  of  active  uterine  life. 

Imring  the  menstrual  period  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  exercise  would, 
for  many  reasons,  be  regarded  as  most  undesirable  ;  and  there  may  possibly 
be  some  truth  in  the  loose  assertion  that  menstrual  irregularities  have  been 
developed  by  tricycling.  There  is  a  real  difficulty  in  the  matter  of  the 
saddle.  The  modern  ladies'  saddle  is  a  great  improvement  upon  the  older 
pattern,  but  the  writer  knows  of  no  saddle  which  can  be  assumed  to  entirely 
do  away  with  the  possibility  of  pressure  upon  the  pudendum. 

Individuals  have  complained  of  much  chafing  in  the  pudendal  region  as  a 
result  of  riding,  and,  without  entering  into  further  details,  the  question  may 
be  asked  whether  in  young  girls  or  in  young  women  an  exercise  is  good 
which  may  involve  considerable  pressure  and  friction  in  the  pudendal  region. 
The  very  detailed  objections  which  have  been  allowed  to  apply  to  the  use  of 
treadle  sewing  machines  by  factory  girls  would  appear  to  apply  to  the  riding 
of  a  tricycle. 

My  personal  opinion  would  take  the  form  of  suggesting  that  there  are  bet- 
ter exercises  for  the  gentler  sex  than  tricycling  provides,  that  the  exercise 
should  not  be  undertaken  by  young  girls  and  young  women,  but  that  it  may 
be  open  to  those  who  are  married  01  middle-aged.  I  am  aware  of  one  or 
two  instances  in  which  ladies  have  abandoned  tricycling  after  a  few  months' 
tic  pursuit  of  the  exen  ise,  without  affording  a  more  definite  excuse 
than  that  "it  did  not  agree  with  them."  That  tricycling  is  not  the  ex<  n 
best  suited  for  a  girl  aboul  puberty  or  a  young  unmarried  woman,  I  am  con- 
vinced ;  and  one  <  innot  help  noticing  that  the  most  enthusiastic,  most  success- 
ful, and  in  'lit  lady  riders  ait-  no  long(  I 

Bi<  y<  le  riding  for  ladies  and  girls  may  be  '  ondemned  tor  the  same  r 
which  have  been  mentioned  In  connection  with  tricycling.     Very  ingen 
Safety  I'.ii  w  been  designed,  but  it  is  evident  that — with  the 

hape  of  saddle  it  least — they  cannot  be  ridden  without  producing 
ind  friction  in  the  pudenda]  region.    The  mounting  and  dismount- 
Ing  is  difficult :  although  it  1  rformed  with  peril  the  learn- 

to  ride  involves  greater  pains,  and  the  dress  distinctly  adds  to  what 
1 1  11.  iy  attend  the  machine. 


86  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

There  are  many  very  admirable,  harmless,  and  delightful  exercises  open  to 
the  tender  sex,  but  among  these  cycling,  and  more  especially  bicycling,  need 
not  be  included. 

Gymnastics  and  Calisthenics. 

These  terms  have  been,  and  are,  employed  in  so  many  senses  that  they 
scarcely  admit  of  any  precise  definition,  and  certainly  of  no  definition  which 
would  meet  with  general  acceptance. 

The  term  "  gymnastics  "  is  usually  considered  to  apply  to  a  series  of  exer- 
cises of  a  somewhat  severe  or  advanced  character,  and  especially  to  such  as 
involve  the  use  of  apparatus.  The  term  "calisthenics  "  is  usually  associated 
with  a  milder  form  of  systematic  exercises,  with  "  free  movements,"  with 
exercises  which  involve  no  apparatus,  with  the  simpler  forms  of  drilling,  and 
the  like.  The  definitions  of  the  words  given  in  the  "Century  Dictionary" 
are  convenient  ones.  "  Calisthenics :  The  art  or  practice  of  exercising  the 
muscles  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  health,  strength,  or  grace  of  form  and 
movement;  a  kind  of  light  gymnastics."  "Gymnastics :  The  art  of  per- 
forming athletic  exercises." 

The  first  expression  which  presents  itself  in  the  consideration  of  gymnastic 
exercises  or  the  teaching  of  calisthenics  is  the  unfortunate  term  "system." 
The  question  asked  of  any  instructor  is  "what  system  does  he  teach?"  and  of 
any  scheme  of  exercises,  "what  system  does  it  follow?"  Considerable  dis- 
cussions have  ensued  upon  the  question  as  to  which  system  of  gymnastics  is 
the  best :  and  while  at  one  centre  of  physical  education  faith  is  fixed  upon 
one  system,  an  opposition  belief  holds  sway  at  another. 

When  the  details  of  opposed  systems  are  considered,  and  the  claims  of 
rival  schools  are  weighed,  no  little  confusion  arises.  The  impartial  observer 
feels  that  he  must  seek  for  some  great  fundamental  characteristics  whereby 
to  separate  one  method  from  another.  He  finds  that  original  systems  have 
been  modified,  reconstructed,  added  to,  and  even  blended  with  methods 
from  other  sources.  He  observes  that  the  conception  one  instructor  of 
gymnastics  has  formed  of  a  system  of  training  differs  materially  from  the 
interpretation  another  teacher  has  adopted  of  the  very  same  system.  Several 
of  the  more  modern  works  upon  gymnastics  form  a  mere  olla  podrida,  a  mix- 
ture of  this  system  and  of  that,  with  modifications  introduced  by  the  author 
and  such  emendations  as  obscure  all  means  of  classification. 

I  have  myself  witnessed  a  "  display  "  advertised  as  a  demonstration  of  the 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  87 

Swedish  system  of  gymnastics,  in  which  musical  drill,  the  use  of  bar-bells  and 
dumb-bells,  were  the  main  features,  and  in  which  none  of  the  familiar  charac- 
teristics of  the  Swedish  system  were  notable. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  terms  "  Swedish  system,"  "  Swedish  gymnastics," 
and  "  Ling's  method  "  are  used  in  so  indiscriminate  a  manner,  that  the  ex- 
pressions have  in  the  mouths  of  many  come  to  be  synonymous  with  any 
form  of  free  movements  or  any  species  of  gymnastic  training  which  is  not 
violent  or  which  does  not  involve  fixed  apparatus. 

One  soon  has  to  conclude  that  no  system  is  per  se  complete  and  all-suffi- 
cient, that  no  one  can  lay  claim  to  international  adoption,  that  evil  may  result 
from  a  blind  adhesion  to  one  particular  method,  and  that  considerable  allow- 
ance has  to  be  made  for  nationality,  physical  condition,  and  physical  tastes. 

While  this  is  true,  it  must  also  be  allowed  that  if  a  certain  system  be  advo- 
cated and  professed  it  should  be  maintained  in  its  entirety  so  long  as  its  dis- 
tinctive title  is  adhered  to  and  employed. 

So  far  as  the  present  purpose  of  this  article  is  concerned,  it  may  be  said 
that  there  are  three  methods  of  gymnastic  exercise  which  for  purposes  of 
convenience  may  be  here  set  forth.  It  must  not  for  a  moment  be  supposed 
that  such  a  classification  is  in  any  way  complete,  nor  is  it  historically  precise, 
nor  perhaps  even  just.  The  systems  alluded  to  are — 1,  the  English  ;  2,  the 
German  ;  and  3,  the  Swedish. 

1.  By  the  English  system  is  understood  a  method  of  physical  training  by 
means  of  athletic  exercises  and  outdoor  sports.  This  system  is  considered  to 
inc  hide  marching,  running,  both  long  distance  running  and  sprint  running, 
leaping,  swimming,  etc.,  trials  of  strength  and  endurance,  and  the  usual  out- 
door sports,  such  as  cricket,  football,  and  rowing. 

This  is  the  sense  in  which   most   foreign  writers  describe  the  English 
tern.     The  definition  is  not  very  liberal,  but  it  is  very  convenient     It  is  true 
of  physical  training  in  England  many  years  ago,  but  of  course  does  nut  pro- 
fess to  represent  such  training  as  is  at  present  carried  out. 

It  i^  needless  to  criticize  what  is  termed  the  English  system.  The  value 
of  athlei  ml  outdoor  games  is  recognized  and  is  appreciated  in  no 

country  so  keenly  as  in  England. 

method  of  training,  it  is  obviously  (rude,  unscientific,  incomplete, 
and   of  restricted   application.      It   is  a   pleasant  training  for  lusty  boys  and 
ions  men,  but  it  is  perfet  tly  cleat  that  it  can  lav  no  claim   to  be  consid- 
ered as  a  preci  e  and  orthodox  system. 


SS  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

2.  The  German  system  may  be  spoken  of  as  being  assimilative.  The 
German  writers  and  teachers  have  adopted  and  embodied  whatever  they 
found  good  in  the  practices  of  other  peoples  in  the  matter  of  physical  edu- 
cation. No  system  is  more  liberal,  more  extensive,  more  catholic.  As  Mr. 
Metzner  well  says  in  his  account  of  the  German  system  of  gymnastics 
(Physical  Training  Conference,  Boston,  1889),  "the  German  system  does 
not  claim  to  have  any  special  exercise  of  its  own,  or  to  be  the  sole  proprietor 
of  any  that  no  other  system  may  also  produce."  The  system  has  been  slowly 
built  up  during  nearly  a  century,  and  has  shown  as  a  main  characteristic 
the  power  of  intelligent  assimilation  and  the  ready  appreciation  and  develop- 
ment of  what  has  appeared  good  in  physical  training. 

The  German  system  embraces  all  the  different  branches  of  gymnastics, 
free  movements,  mass  exercises  in  every  form,  with  wands,  dumb-bells,  flags, 
bar-bells,  etc.,  figure  marching,  trot  marching,  the  use  of  a  most  varied  and 
extensive  series  of  fixed  apparatus,  the  use  of  clubs  and  all  forms  of  hand 
apparatus,  and  the  encouragement  of  such  exercises  as  come  under  the  head- 
ing of  outdoor  sports. 

It  aims  at  general  physical  culture  and  does  not  encourage  the  develop- 
ment of  especial  powers  or  especial  abilities ;  it  encourages  exercises  in 
classes  (mass  exercises)  and  endeavours  to  infuse  interest  and  amusement  in 
its  instructions  ;  it  aims  at  being  complete  and  at  being  capable  of  adaptation 
by  individuals  of  all  ages  and  of  very  varied  physical  ability ;  it  encourages 
a  gradual  and  progressive  form  of  instruction,  the  pupil  commencing  with  the 
simplest  exercises  and  proceeding  with  the  more  difficult  and  arduous  only 
when  the  more  rudimentary  have  been  fully  mastered. 

A  description  of  the  exercises  carried  out  under  the  German  system  would 
require  a  treatise  of  considerable  length. 

(a)  The  free  exercises  imply  various  movements  of  the  limbs  and  trunk 
carried  out  without  apparatus.  They  include  manifold  movements  of  the 
arms  and  legs,  bending  and  rotating  of  the  body  in  various  directions,  and 
the  assuming  of  a  number  of  attitudes  and  postures. 

By  these  free  movements  it  is  considered  that  every  muscle  is  exercised ; 
the  exercises  are  simple,  gentle,  and  are  especially  adapted  for  children, 
although  they  should  form  the  preliminary  course  in  any  scheme  of  physical 
training.  They  are  repeated  a  great  number  of  times,  and  are  effected 
symmetrically  so  that  each  side  of  the  body  may  be  equally  developed.  They 
are  so  arranged  as  to  be  progressive,  and  every  attempt  should   be  made  to 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  S9 

render  them  complete.  These  exercises  are  obviously  best  conducted  in  classes, 
and  many  are  very  conveniently  carried  out  to  music,  as  the  German  system 
allows.  They  are  popular  and  interesting.  They  tend  not  only  to  develop 
the  muscles  but  also" to  quicken  attention,  to  encourage  rapid,  precise,  and 
well  co-ordinated  movements,  and  to  bring  about  the  mental  alertness  and 
the  physical  smartness  which  are  elicited  by  any  well-conducted  drill.  They 
tend  to  give  grace  and  ease  and  freedom  to  the  movements  and  to  favor  a 
good  carriage. 

No  system  of  physical  education  is  complete  which  is  not  founded  upon  a 
sound  grounding  in  free  exercises. 

It  is  only  fair  to  state  that  some  of  the  best  of  the  free  movements  carried 
out  in  the  German  system  have  been  derived  from  the  Swedish  schools. 
The  exercises  are  perhaps,  on  the  whole,  more  interesting  and  more  pictur- 

ae  than  those  adopted  by  the  Swedish  system.  They  are,  however,  less 
precise  and  less  complete,  and  less  elaborately  systematized  as  a  part  of  a 
progressive  system  of  education.  Not  a  few  of  these  German  free  exercises 
have  little  educational  purpose,  and  appear  to  be  adopted  more  for  effect  and 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  a  public  display.  Some  recent  modifications  and 
additions  have  little  claim  to  serious  attention,  and  do  not  elicit  the  best 
possible  employment  of  the  pupil's  time.  Compared  with  the  Swedish  exer- 
cises, however,  they  are,  on  the  whole,  more  popular  with  children,  and  arc 
certainly  more  picturesque. 

(/>)   Another  scries  of  exercises  involve  the  use  of  very  light  hand  apparatus, 

such   as   bar-bells,   wooden    dumb-bells,  Hags,  hoops,   etc.     These   exercises, 

although  they  concern  to  a  great  extent  the  upper  part  of  the    trunk  and   the 

upper  limbs,  involve  also  the  development  of  the  other  dsus<  les  of  the  body. 

apparatus  used  is  hut  a  slight  element  in  the  exercises, 

which  are  nearly  of  the  same  charact<  r  as  those  just  described.  The  appa- 
ratus gives  prei  ision  to  the  movements,  makes  tl 

ing  and  more  easily  carried  out,  mid   renders  the  instructor's  work  some- 
what les,  difficult.    The  e  exen  i  es  are  adapted  f* »r  elder  children,  and  i 
a  peculiarly  valuable  element  in  education.     They  represent  an  advancement 
upon   tin-  free  mover  :    in   a   systematic   and    progressive  plan  of 

■  icti<  n  would  naturally  follow  upon  those  exercises.    These   <■•    ■ 
with  apparatus  m  ed  out  to  music. 

drilling  does  not  form  a  \  element  in  the 

introduced  here,  espa  ially 
7 


90  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

as  the  modern  gymnastic  drill  is  largely  a  German  production.  A  certain 
amount  of  drilling  is  of  value,  and  forms  an  efficient  means  of  cultivating  a 
good  carriage  and  an  easy  and  free  mode  of  walking  and  marching.  Military 
drill  is  a  little  tedious  and  formal,  and  to  a  considerable  extent  purposeless, 
so  far  as  a  full  physical  education  is  concerned.  It  tends  to  sharpen  the  wits 
of  dull  lads  and  to  encourage  precise  and  active  movements.  It  is,  however, 
uninteresting  to  the  pupil,  and  does  not  afford  in  any  way  a  complete  or  satis- 
factory method  of  employing  the  muscles.  In  the  physical  training  of  chil- 
dren it  may  well  be  replaced  by  more  valuable  exercises. 

The  musical  drill  of  more  modern  times  is  very  different  from  the  drill- 
sergeant's  work.  Musical  drill  appears  to  have  been  introduced  from  America, 
and  it  now  forms  a  conspicuous  feature  in  most  training  schools.  It  consists 
of  marching  or  running  in  a  such  a  manner  as  to  describe  a  variety  of  figures, 
and  always  to  music. 

Under  this  heading  come  the  many  forms  of  the  musical  running  or 
marching  maze,  which  include  marching  in  two  or  four  circles,  or  in  reverse 
circles,  or  in  parallel  lines,  or  in  what  is  known  as  the  serpentine  course. 
This  drill  is  only  possible  with  a  comparatively  large  class.  It  is  very  popu- 
lar with  children  and  with  lads  and  elder  girls.  It  forms  an  excellent  relaxa- 
tion from  the  more  formal  exercises,  and  represents  running  with  a  purpose. 
Many  admirable  books  have  appeared  on  the  subject.  The  three  forms  of 
exercise  just  described  are  especially  well  adapted  for  children  and  for 
instruction  in  schools.  They  serve  to  form  the  basis  of  a  very  sound  and 
perfect  physical  drill. 

If  the  work  of  a  school  could  be  inLerrupted  for  thirty  minutes  in  the 
middle  of  the  morning  in  order  that  the  children  might  go  through  some  few 
dumb-bell  or  bar-bell  exercises  in  fresher  air,  and  then  finish  up  with  the 
running  maze  to  music,  something  would  be  done  towards  securing  a  reason- 
able development  of  the  body.  All  that  is  required  is  a  competent  teacher, 
plenty  of  floor  or  ground  space,  some  very  simple  apparatus,  and  equally 
simple  music. 

(d)  The  use  of  gymnastic  apparatus  is  considered  in  a  subsequent  section. 
In  the  employment  of  apparatus  and  in  the  invention  and  elaboration  of 
gymnastic  appliances  of  various  kinds  the  German  schools  have  been  very 
active.  Indeed,  the  use  of  apparatus  is  so  prominent  in  the  system  that  it 
has  been  often  improperly  considered  to  represent  its  principal  feature. 

3.  The  Swedish  system,  or  the  system  introduced  by  Ling,  has  attracted 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  91 

very  considerable  attention,  and  has  certainly  been  the  means  of  effecting  not 
only  a  remarkable  improvement  in  physical  education,  but  a  change  which 
may  be  spoken  of  as  little  less  than  a  revolution.  It  may  be  that  the  whole 
method  is  not  original,  and  that  some  of  its  features  have  been  anticipated, 
but  as  a  system  it  has  been  enthusiastically  accepted,  and  certainly  met  a 
want  which  had  been  felt  in  physical  education. 

There  was  a  time  in  this  country  when  in  the  matter  of  physical  education 
there  was  little  between  somewhat  violent  outdoor  sports  and  certain  acro- 
batic feats  in  the  gymnasium  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  dreary  instruction  of 
the  drill-sergeant  on  the  other.  The  young  girls  of  that  period  had  also,  it 
must  be  allowed,  the  services  of  the  so-called  professor  of  deportment,  but  of 
the  value  of  his  instruction  it  is  difficult  to  speak.  Physical  training  in  those 
days  was  for  the  strong.  It  encouraged  specialization  ;  it  did  not  concern  it- 
self with  a  systematic  and  progressive  development  of  the  human  body. 

The  Swedish  system  of  physical  training  includes  a  very  extensive  series 
of  free  movements,  a  series  of  exercises  involving  marching,  leaping,  running 
and  climbing,  and  certain  carefully  graduated  exercises  on  the  boom,  rib- 
stool,  and  window  ladder.  The  free  movements  are  admirable,  and  for  them 
these  advantages  can  be  claimed  :  They  have  been  carefully  worked  out : 
each  series  of  movements  are  definite  and  precise,  and  are  intended  to 
develop  a  special  series  of  muscles ;  the  exercises  are  systematic  and  pro- 
gressive, and  form  in  their  entirety  a  complete  and  simple  system  of  phj 
mining. 

The   movements  are  not   designed   with  a  view  to  effect  or  display,  but 
simply  to  'Try  out   the  scheme   of  muscular  training.     They  are  desigl 
with  care,  and  each  accomplishes  a  specific  object.     '1  'he  exercises  begin 
with  the  very  simplest  and  gradually  become  stronger  and   more  compli- 
cated. 

The  use  Of  hand  apparatus  i-.  only  sanctioned  after  a  complete  mastery  of 
the  free  movements  has  been  ait  lined,  and  then  only  to  add  some  intensity 
to  those  movements. 

The  fixed  apparatu  employed  l>y  teachers  of  the  Swedish  53  item 

are  the  boom,  the  rib-stool,  and  the  window  ladder.    The  Inter  forms  an 
eel  lent  exercise  for  children  and  affords  them  no  little  amusement    The 
method   prepares  the  way  for  kh  Jled  eesthetical  gymnastics,  tor  fencing, 
military  drill,  and  other  forma  of  applied  gymnastics. 

All  the  movements  of  the  drill  are  applied  to  words  of  command,  and  the 


92  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

pupil  gains  all  those  advantages,  mental  and  otherwise,  which  attend  the 
teaching  of  exercises  by  the  drill  method,  i.  e.,  by  word  of  command  rather 
than  by  imitation  or  by  committing  the  movements  to  memory. 

The  Swedish  system  disapproves  utterly  of  the  use  of  music,  and  it  is 
contended  that  the  exercises  cannot  be  adapted  to  one  set  rhythm. 

Against  the  Swedish  method  it  may  be  urged  that  the  exercises  are  a  little 
uninteresting  to  the  pupils,  that  many  of  them  appear  ungainly  and  purpose- 
less, and  that  the  great  advantage  of  a  musical  accompaniment  is  lost. 

The  chief  movements  may  be  classed  under  the  following  divisions  : 

(a)  Fundamental  positions. — These  are  intended  to  secure  general  atten- 
tion and  muscular  control,  and  to  establish  the  equilibrium  and  base  of  sup- 
port before  more  difficult  exercises  are  undertaken. 

(b)  Arch  flexions  comprise  various  forms  of  backward  flexions  of  the 
trunk,  and  are  intended  to  develop  the  dorsal  muscles  and  those  of  the 
abdomen,  and  to  expand  the  lower  part  of  the  chest. 

(c)  Heaving  movements. — These  comprise  forms  of  self-suspension  by 
means  of  the  arms  on  a  horizontal  bar  or  other  apparatus,  and  serve  to  ex- 
pand the  chest  and  to  strengthen  the  muscles  of  the  upper  limb. 

(d)  Balance  jnovements. — The  positions  are  taken  from  a  smaller  area 
than  that  included  within  the  feet  in  standing ;  the  difficulty  is  increased  by 
diminution  of  the  area  of  support.  The  exercises  develop  the  equipoise  of 
the  body  and  give  grace  to  the  carriage. 

(e)  Shoulder-blade  movements  are  concerned  mainly  with  the  scapular 
muscles. 

(f)  Abdominal  movements  call  into  special  action  the  muscles  of  the  ab- 
domen. 

(g)  Lateral  trunk  movements. — These  include  various  forms  of  lateral 
flexion  of  the  body,  and  of  rotary  movements,  and  concern  generally  the 
muscles  of  the  trunk. 

(h)  Slow  leg  movevients. — They  are  to  specially  develop  the  individual 
muscles  of  the  leg. 

(i)  Jutnping  and  vaulting,  and  (j)  respiratory  exercises  call  for  no  expla- 
nation. 

In  the  article  on  "  Physical  Development,"  in  Keating's  "  Cyclopaedia  of 
the  Diseases  of  Children"  (vol.  iv.,  p.  303),  will  be  found  a  brief  but  lucid 
exposition  of  the  actual  details  of  the  Swedish  drill,  illustrated  by  numerous 
figures  of  the  various  positions. 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  93 

An  excellent  "Manual  of  Swedish  Drill"  has  been  produced  by  George 
Melio  (London,  1SS9).  The  reader  may  also  consult  a  "Manual  of  Free- 
standing Movements,"  by  Captain  Haasum,  of  the  Royal  Gymnastic  Insti- 
tute, Stockholm  (London,  18S5).  Both  books  are  admirable.  Mr.  Melio's 
various  contributions  to  our  knowledge  of  Swedish  gymnastics  have  been  very 
valuable,  inasmuch  as  his  early  training  was  not  carried  out  under  the  Swed- 
ish method. 

The  Swedish  system  of  physical  training  originated  with  Ling,  and  has 
been  considerably  developed  and  extended  by  his  pupils  and  followers. 

Petter  Henrik  Ling  was  born  at  Ljunga,  in  Smaland,  in  1 766.  His  early 
life  appears  to  have  been  absorbed  by  a  struggle  against  poverty,  and  he 
passed  through  many  vicissitudes.  He  seems  to  have  been  engaged  in  many 
pursuits  and  to  have  traveled  in  many  countries.  In  1S00  he  was  studying 
gymnastics  at  Copenhagen,  and  in  1804  he  was  engaged  as  a  fencing  master 
at  Lund.  His  system  of  physical  training  was  elaborated  after  this  date. 
The  Royal  Gymnastic  Institute  was  founded  at  Stockholm  in  1815  at  his  in- 
stigation, and  remained  under  his  supervision  until  his  death  in  1S39. 

Ling  figured  as  a  poet  and  a  dramatist ;  he  dabbled  with  the  flimsier  forms 
of  metaphysics  and  held  some  crude  conceptions  of  physiology.  His  educa- 
tion was  scarcely  such  as  to  fit  him  for  the  position  he  ultimately  held. 

Ling  held  that  life  consisted  of  the  blending  together  of  three  elements — 
the  dynamic,  the  chemical,  and  the  mechanical — and  upon  this  belief  his 
item  "  was  founded.  Many  of  his  exercises  were  only  suited  to  invalids, 
and  he  professed  to  have  discovered  the  means  of  curing  most  diseases  by 
physical  movements.  His  exercises  were  indeed  divided  into  scholastic,  mil- 
itary, medical,  and  aesthetic  gymnastics.     He  considered  thai  every  muscular 

movement  had  a  spe<  ial  effect  upon  the  general  health,  and  held  that  passive 

movements  had  a  definite  value  in  promoting  I  :  >pment  of  the  body. 

It  must  1„-  ,  onfes  ed   th  it   his  system  (excellent  as  sonv  of  it  un- 

doubtedly are)  was  founded  upon  no1  a  few  extravagant  theories  and  u] 
which  wen-  not  always  scientific 

The  medi<  tl  3ide  of  the  the  means  of  fostering  a  form  of 

quai  I  has  led  to  the  introduction  of  the  "  remedial  ea  md 

"movem  "  which  have  done  so  much  to  bring  Sn 

into  discredit  in  this  country.     Out   of  the  complex,  h 

ionary  material  which  makes  up  Ling1  1,  much  that  i>  really  good  and 

■  n  extracted.    This  is  represented  by  the  excelli  1  of 


94  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

free  movements  already  described,  and  by  many  of  the  methods  of  treating 
disease  by  exercise  which  have  been  heartily  accepted  and  developed  by  the 
medical  men  of  this  and  other  countries.  In  Anna  Arnin's  "  Health  Maps  " 
(London,  18S7),  and  in  Schrieber's  "Manual  of  Treatment  by  Massage" 
(Edinburgh,  1887),  will  be  found  good  accounts  of  the  application  of  move- 
ments to  the  treatment  of  abnormal  and  diseased  conditions. 

In  proposing  a  course  of  "  Swedish  gymnastics  "  or  in  advocating  "  Ling's 
system,"  it  is  desirable  that  a  clear  knowledge  should  be  possessed  of  what  is 
implied  by  these  terms,  and  that  encouragement  be  not  offered  to  the  "  reme- 
dial measures,"  the  "  movement  cures,"  and  the  quackery  with  which  this 
otherwise  excellent  system  is  attended.  Any  instructor  who  describes  himself 
as  a  "  medical  gymnast  "  will  probably  not  be  sought  for  as  a  teacher. 

Ling's  system  in  its  entirety  could  hardly  be  accepted  at  the  present  day. 
Such  portion  of  the  Swedish  system  as  deals  with  the  practical  part  of 
physical  education  pure  and  simple  must,  however,  be  accepted  as  of  con- 
siderable worth. 

Gymnastic  Apparatus. 

Under  this  title  will  be  considered  the  use  of  such  apparatus  as  will  be 
found  in  a  well-equipped  gymnasium.  A  good  gymnasium  should  have 
ample  space,  good  light,  very  free  ventilation,  the  best  possible  apparatus, 
and  a  fully  qualified  instructor. 

The  fresher  the  air  and  (within  limits)  the  cooler  the  room  the  better.  A 
properly  ventilated  gymnasium  has  an  unlimited  supply  of  fresh  air  without 
draughts.  If  there  be  a  time  when  plenty  of  oxygen  is  required,  it  is  when 
young  persons  are  taking  violent  exercise.  Many  gymnasia  are  ill-lit, 
cramped,  and  a  very  badly  ventilated. 

The  majority  of  the  exercises  involved  in  the  use  of  gymnastic  apparatus 
involve  considerable  strength  and  much  practice. 

It  is  madness  for  a  man  out  of  training  and  unaccustomed  to  exercise  to 
commence  in  a  gymnasium  the  use  of  such  apparatus  as  the  horizontal  bar 
or  the  vaulting  horse.  Many  children,  especially  girls,  have  been  seriously 
damaged  by  the  violent  exertions  undertaken  in  improperly  conducted 
gymnasia. 

Such  gymnasia  have  done  a  very  great  deal  to  bring  physical  training  into 
discredit.  A  boy  of  about  ten  has  joined  a  "  gymnastic  class  ;"  his  physical 
condition  has  never  been  examined  and  his  physical  capacities  never  in- 
quired into.     He  enters  the  gymnasium,  and  without  any  preliminary  training 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  95 

attempts  the  feats  he  sees  other  pupils  performing,  without  perhaps  having 
received  any  definite  instruction.  The  boy  goes  home  dead-beat,  feeble,  and 
sick  at  heart  at  his  ill-success,  and  aching  with  his  unwonted  exertions.  Next 
day  he  presents  all  the  phenomena  of  extreme  fatigue,  and  perhaps  the  symp- 
toms of  muscular  strain.  I  have  known  more  than  one  instance  in  which  a 
hernia  made  its  appearance  after  a  first  attendance  at  a  gymnasium. 

The  very  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  management  of  all  child- 
ren and  young  people  sent  to  a  gymnasium.  Parents  who  take  infinite  pains 
to  supervise  the  mental  education  of  their  children,  often  take  not  the  least 
trouble  to  ascertain  the  conditions  under  which  their  bodies  are  being  trained. 
A  lad  comes  home  with  a  headache  and  with  all  the  symptoms  of  exhaustion 
from  the  hour's  drill,  and  is  not  allowed  to  attend  again  on  the  grounds  that 
he  is  not  "strong  enough  for  rough  exercise."  A  visit  to  the  gymnasium  may 
have  shown  that  the  headache  was  due  to  an  ill-ventilated  and  over-heated 
room,  and  the  exhaustion  to  totally  unsuitable  exercises. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  physical  training  requires  discretion ;  that  a 
great  mass  of  pupils,  even  when  of  the  same  age  and  sex,  cannot  be  all  dealt 
with  en  masse  by  fixed  rules.  The  exercises  selected  and  the  apparatus  to  be 
used  must  be  determined,  not  by  rule  of  thumb,  but  by  the  precise  needs  of 
each  individual  case.  This  observation  will  not  apply  to  drilling  and  to  simple 
mass  exercises,  but  it  applies  in  a  very  emphatic  manner  to  apparatus. 

A  gymnasium  is  worse  than  useless  without  an  efficient  and  careful  in- 
structor. Gymnastics  cannot  be  self-taught.  The  process  of  training  must 
be  gradual,  and  so  graduated  as  to  meet  the  pupil's  particular  needs  and 
particular  si  ite  of  development. 

in   a   gymnasium  without  a  teacher  usually  means  pur- 

'ess  romping.     It    may  safely  be  said   that   the  great  majority  of  the 

accidents  which  occur  in   gymnasia  occur  during   forbidden  hours,  or  when 

the   pupil    i->   attempting   exercises   by   himself   of  which    he   has   no    precise 

knowled 

Put  an  .'live  boy  in  a  gymnasium  and  pay  no  attention  to  bis  training, 
and  lie  will  assuredl)  begin  to  "play  the  fool,"  to " skylark,"  to  develop 
uncouth  modi  g  his  limbs,  and  in  the  cud  very  probably  do  him- 

self more  "i  I  je. 

The  pupil  in  a  gymnasium  mu  tent  to  I  the  beginning, 

•  learn  to  be  patient  and  to  over*  >me  failures,  must  be  ready  to  believe 
that  there  many  <•  he  can  never  pt  rform,  and  that  he  is  end 


9  6  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

to  acquire  health  and  strength,  and  not  to  qualify  himself  for  the  profession 
of  an  acrobat.  Above  all  things,  work  in  a  gymnasium  must  be  gradual, 
regular  and  systematic. 

A  very  lamentable  spectacle  is  that  afforded  by  a  middle-aged  man  who 
feels  he  is  becoming  stout  and  who  thinks  he  will  "  take  to  gymnastics."  He 
attempts  at  once  the  exercises  he  sees  his  younger  colleagues  perform  with 
such  complete  ease.  If  such  a  man  escapes  with  no  greater  injury  than  is 
represented  by  being  rendered  breathless,  by  having  several  muscles  sprained, 
and  by  being  laughed  at,  he  may  consider  himself  fortunate. 

In  general  terms  it  may  be  said  that  the  gymnasium  is  not  well  suited  for 
children,  is  best  suited  for  lads  and  young  men  between  the  ages  of  seven- 
teen and  twenty-five,  and  is  but  indifferently  adapted  for  men  over  thirty, 
unless  they  have  kept  up  the  physical  acquirements  of  their  youth  by  constant 
practice. 

It  is  important  also  to  bear  in  mind  that  gymnastic  exercises  with  apparatus 
all  tend  to  develop  the  upper  limbs  and  the  upper  half  of  the  trunk. 

The  gymnasium  cannot  provide  the  means  for  a  complete  physical  edu- 
cation, and  work  in  it  should  never  so  far  absorb  the  time  devoted  to 
physical  training  as  to  exclude  recreation  in  the  open  air  and  outdoor  games 
and  exercises.  Exercises  with  apparatus  come  at  the  end,  and  not  at  the  be- 
ginning, of  a  course  of  physical  training. 

A  very  brief  description  of  the  commoner  apparatus  will  now  be  given. 

Dumb-bells. — These  should  be  light  and  should  be  made  of  sycamore  wood. 
The  weight  for  boys  should  be  i  lb.  each  bell,  2  lb.  for  lads,  and  3  lb.  for 
adults.  Heavy  dumb-bells  are  to  be  condemned.  The  chief  feature  of  proper 
dumb-bell  exercises  is  the  great  frequency  with  which  they  are  repeated 
and  the  length  of  time  the  movements  are  kept  up.  The  weight  of  the  bell 
is  not  a  factor  of  any  moment  in  the  exercise,  but  the  apparatus  serves  to  give 
interest  and  precision  to  the  movements  carried  out.  Heavy  dumb-bells  in- 
volve considerable  effort  compressed  into  an  inconsiderable  time.  Such  bells 
are  only  of  use  to  athletes  who  wish  to  specially  develop  their  arms. 

Dumb-bell  exercises  are  admirable.  They  can  be  adapted  for  individuals 
of  all  ages  and  of  all  conditions  of  physical  strength  ;  they  are  well  suited 
for  class  exercises ;  and  a  musical  drill  with  light  dumb-bells  forms  a  pleasant 
feature  in  the  training  of  boys  and  girls.  Both  bells  should  be  used  at  the 
same  time. 

The  exercises  encourage  a  good  carriage,  rapid  and  precise  movements, 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  97 

and  the  equal,  symmetrical,  and  simultaneous  use  of  the  muscles  upon  both 
sides  of  the  body. 

These  exercises  tend  to  develop  the  chest  and  to  exercise  the  muscles  of 
the  abdomen  and  back. 

It  is  true  the  arms  are  conspicuously  employed  in  dumb-bell  movements, 
but  if  the  drilling  is  efficient  nearly  all  the  muscles  of  the  body  are  well, 
although  not  equally  exercised,  and  especial  employment  can  be  given  to  the 
muscles  of  the  back. 

Bar-bells. — These  are  of  ash.  The  shaft  is  five  feet  long  (for  adults)  and 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  knob  at  each  end  is  three  inches 
in  diameter. 

The  exercises  carried  out  with  bar-bells  resemble  those  performed  with 
dumb-bells.  They  have  especial  value  in  developing  the  muscles  of  the 
chest  and  of  the  abdomen.  The  muscles  of  the  upper  limbs  are  somewhat 
unduly  exercised,  and  considerable  work  can  be  thrown  upon  the  muscles  of 
the  back.  This  apparatus  is  excellent  for  the  narrow-chested.  It  encourages 
symmetrical  movements,  a  graceful  carriage,  and  general  lissomeness  of  the 
body.     Bar-bells  are  extensively  used  in  the  training  of  young  girls. 

By  the  use  of  double  bar-bells  a  still  more  extensive  use  of  the  general 
muscular  system  is  involved.  In  these  exercises  two  bar-bells  are  held  at 
either  end  by  two  pupils ;  in  all  movements  the  two  pupils  must  act  in  con- 
cert. The  exercises  concern  the  whole  of  the  muscles  and  afford  excellent 
training  in  symmetrical,  rapid,  and  precise  movements. 

Indian  Clubs  arc  made  of  pine  wood,  and  are  about  24  in.  in  length  and 
some  y/2  in.  in  diameter  at  the  thick  end.  The  exercises  are  only  suited  for 
adults  and  for  muscular  persons.  They  encourage  a  firm  and  upright  attitude, 
and  develop  principally  the  upper  part  of  the  trunk  and  the  upper  limbs. 

M  my  of  the  movements  are  very  elaborate  and    require  great   nicety  of 
Hun. 

.'//<••/ Bars  should  be  about  9  ft.  long,  20  in.  apart, and  about  4  ft.  from 
the  ground.     I '.very  instructor  in  gymnastics  recognises  that  the  parallel 
form  one  of  the  most  useful  apparatus  in  die  gymnasium.    "The  exerci- 

writes  Ma<  larrn,  "are  not  only  numerous  hut  varied,  interesting,  and  in  them- 
selves pleasurable,  capable  of  much  artistic  effect,  and  requiring  equally 
muscular  power  and  dexterity  of .-..  tion  in  the  upper  limb." 

The   usual  cm  I  ;ve,  and    none  arc  violent      The  apparatus 

is  suited    for  pn>peil\   trained    pupils  Of  any  Bge  after  twelve  or  fourteen,  and 


93  PHYSICAL   EDUCATION. 

within  limits  for  both  sexes,  provided  that  the  muscular  development  of  the 
learner  is  efficient.  The  exercises  improve  the  grasp,  develop  the  muscles  of 
the  upper  limb,  and  especially  the  muscles  passing  between  the  upper  limb 
and  the  trunk.  They  are  well  adapted  for  individuals  with  slight  arms,  with 
narrow  and  sloping  shoulders,  and  with  contracted  chests.  Excessive  use  of 
the  bars  tends,  however,  to  develop  to  excess  the  posterior  scapular  muscles. 
The  muscles  of  the  abdomen  are  employed,  but  comparatively  little  use  is 
made  of  the  lower  extremities. 

The  Horizontal  Bar  is  about  six  feet  long,  has  a  diameter  of  i^  in.,  and 
is  raised  from  three  to  seven  feet  from  the  ground.  This  valuable  apparatus 
is  adapted  for  pupils  of  almost  any  age  above  ten  or  twelve.  The  exercises 
are  varied  and  progressive,  and  can  be  made  to  suit  various  degress  of  mus- 
cular development. 

The  simpler  exercises  develop  the  muscles  of  the  upper  limbs  and  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  trunk ;  the  more  advanced  call  into  play  the  muscles  of  the 
back  and  of  the  abdomen,  and  to  a  less  extent  the  muscles  of  the  lower  limbs. 
The  apparatus  if  used  to  too  great  an  extent  tends  to  develop  the  upper  limb 
muscles  to  a  disproportionate  extent. 

The  simpler  exercises  are  adapted  under  careful  restriction  for  girls  with 
weak  spines,  and  for  those  with  small  scapular  muscles  and  slender  shoulders. 

The  more  elaborate  exercises  require  considerable  strength  and  agility,  and 
are  only  suited  for  the  athletic  and  very  muscular. 

In  certain  of  the  primary  exercises  the  abdominal  muscles  are  especially 
employed. 

The  Trapeze  is  made  of  hickory  or  ash,  is  about  20  in.  in  length  and 
some  Y^  in.  in  diameter.  The  height  at  which  it  is  suspended  from  the 
ground,  and  the  length  of  the  ropes,  must  depend  upon  the  capacity  and  age 
of  the  learner. 

The  exercises  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  horizontal  bar,  but  as  the 
pupil  can  swing  at  the  time  of  practising,  this  apparatus  is  very  popular. 

It  mainly  brings  into  play  the  muscles  of  the  upper  limb  and  those  pass- 
ing between  the  trunk  and  that  member.  It  is  of  service  in  cases  of  feeble 
back  and  commencing  lateral  curvature,  and  can  be  made  admirable  use  of 
in  developing  especially  the  muscles  of  the  abdomen. 

A  mattress  must  always  be  placed  beneath  the  low  trapeze,  and  a  net 
beneath  the  higher  apparatus.  Great  care  must  be  taken  in  carrying  out 
the  movements,  and  this  apparatus  has  been  the  cause  of  not  a  few  accidents. 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  99 

The  more  elaborate  movements  are  only  adapted  for  the  practised  athlete, 
and  some  of  the  finest  displays  of  gymnastic  skill  are  made  with  the  trapeze. 

The  Hand  Rings  have  a  diameter  of  from  5  to  9  in.,  are  placed  about  18 
in.  apart  when  used  by  adults,  and  at  the  distance  of  3  to  6  ft.  from  the  floor. 
This  apparatus  is  also  very  popular.  The  exercises  closely  resemble  those 
carried  out  upon  the  trapeze.  The  same  sets  of  muscles  are  concerned.  The 
apparatus,  if  properly  employed,  is  excellent  for  cases  of  lateral  curvature  ; 
the  lateral  muscles  of  the  trunk  can  be  very  fully  and  efficiently  exercised, 
and  one  side  can  be  especially  developed  if  required. 

The  more  elaborate  exercises  concern  the  muscles  of  the  back  and  ab- 
domen and  indeed  the  whole  muscular  system,  with  the  exception  that  the 
lower  limbs  are  but  little  involved. 

Unless  care  be  exercised  it  is  easy  for  young  pupils  to  produce  an  unsym- 
metrical  development  of  the  back  muscles  by  an  improper  use  of  this 
appliance. 

The  Vaulting  Horse  is  a  valuable  apparatus.  The  body  should  be  from  5 
to  6  ft.  in  length,  and  should  be  capable  of  being  adjusted  at  any  height. 
Mattresses  must  be  placed  around  it,  and  a  sloping  board  is  generally  placed 
in  front  of  it  for  leaping  exercises. 

The  vaulting  horse  is  well  suited  for  children  and  the  young  and  fax 
athletic  adults.  It  is  scarcely  the  apparatus  for  the  middle-aged.  It  may  be 
used  by  girls  under  puberty,  but  its  use  in  older  females  is  open  to  some 
question  (see  page  85). 

The  exeri  isea  are  varied,  are  pleasurable,  and   are   popular  with   young 

people.      It  is  well  suited  for  class  instruction.     The  simpler  exercises  consist 

of  vaulting  over  the  horse  in  different  ways.     The  exercises  develop  all  the 

1  les  of  the  body,  the   lower  limbs  as  well  as  the  upper,  the  spine  as  well 

as  the  abdomen.     Its  use  brings  about  a  good  grasp,  a  certain  amount  of 

agility  and  pre<  ision  of   movement,  and  cultivates  a  good  swing  of  the  body. 

Ii  forms  an  excellent   means  of  cultivating   the  respiratory  apparatus,  and 

brings  OUt  the  muscle,  about  the  pelvis. 

of  the  most  popular  les  ons  in  a  gymnasium  is  represented  by  a  class 

Of  pupils  who  form  in  line  and  vaull  over  the  horse  one  after  the  other,  k 
up  a  <  ontinued  round  and  run. 
The  mor  only  suited  for  athletes,  and  are  elal 

and  difficult     No  gymnasium  can  be  considered  to  be  complete  without  some 
tulting  h< 


ioo  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

The  Inclined  Ladder  as  usually  employed  exercises  mainly  the  muscles 
of  the  upper  limb  and  upper  part  of  the  trunk.  The  exercises,  like  all  other 
suspension  exercises,  are  excellent  for  cases  of  weak  back  with  tendency  to 
curvature  of  the  spine,  provided  that  they  are  carefully  planned  and  super- 
vised. 

The  apparatus  affords  good  practice  in  balancing  the  body  in  the  exercise 
of  mounting  the  ladder  with  the  feet  only,  and  is  useful  for  developing  the 
abdominal  muscles.  It  is  suited  for  pupils  of  various  ages  and  of  both  sexes, 
with  certain  limits. 

The  Ladder  Plank  is  another  useful  and  popular  apparatus.  The  machine 
is  made  in  many  different  ways.  For  adults  the  plank  is  about  18  in.  wide, 
and  from  either  side  of  it  project  spars  which  are  6  in.  in  length  and  9  in. 
apart. 

The  exercises  on  this  machine  can  be  adapted  to  individuals  of  all  ages,  of 
both  sexes,  and  of  all  degrees  of  muscular  development. 

The  muscles  of  the  entire  body  are  exercised,  although  those  of  the  upper 
limbs  and  of  the  upper  part  of  the  trunk  receive  most  employment.  Maclaren 
thinks  that  no  machine  in  the  gymnasium  so  rapidly  and  powerfully  aids  in 
the  expansion  and  development  of  the  upper  part  of  the  trunk  as  does  the 
ladder  plank. 

This  is  a  good  form  of  apparatus  for  cases  of  lateral  curvature  of  the  spine  ; 
especially  good  are  the  exercises  which  involve  the  descending  of  the  plank 
backwards,  i.  e.  with  the  back  to  the  plank.  These  exercises  also  throw  the 
chest  out  to  its  utmost,  and  the  apparatus  is  useful  for  the  narrow-chested 
or  pigeon-breasted.     It  is  a  valuable  apparatus  for  growing  girls,  and  is  safe. 

77/i?  Horizontal  Ladder  gives  opportunity  for  a  good  series  of  suspension 
exercises,  which  concern  mainly  the  muscles  of  the  upper  limb,  but  which 
also  develop,  to  a  lesser  degree,  the  muscles  of  the  back  and  of  the  abdomen. 
This  is  an  another  apparatus  of  service  in  cases  of  weak  or  distorted  back. 

Apparatus  for  Climbing. — Climbing  affords  excellent  exercise,  is  very 
popular  among  children,  is  suited  for  pupils  of  both  sexes  and  for  individuals 
of  almost  any  age.  It  is  not  suited  for  those  who  have  not  had  special  mus- 
cular training,  nor  for  the  corpulent,  nor  for  those  who  are  past  middle  life. 
All  climbing  exercises  may  be  considered  as  advanced  exercises. 

Climbing  may  be  effected  in  different  ways,  and  children  are  very  apt  to 
acquire  tricks  in  climbing  which  tend  to  distort  the  body  and  to  develop  it 
unequally.     The  movements  of  climbing  must  be  carried  out  very  precisely 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  101 

and  methodically,  and  must  be  carefully  superintended  by  the  instructor. 
Girls  and  young  women  often  make  excellent  climbers.  The  exercise  con- 
cerns all  the  muscles,  but  especially  those  of  the  upper  limbs.  It  also  tends 
to  develop  the  muscles  of  the  thighs,  back,  and  abdomen.  It  is  not  a  good 
exercise  for  the  subjects  of  spinal  curvature. 

The  apparatus  used  comprises  (i)  the  vertical  pole,  a  smooth  pole  of  any 
height,  and  with  a  diameter  varying  from  two  to  three  inches;  (2)  the 
slanting  pole,  which  involves  a  combination  of  exercises  represented  by  the 
vertical  pole  and  the  slanting  ladder.  This  apparatus  is  of  value  in  develop- 
ing the  muscles  of  the  abdomen  as  well  as  those  of  the  upper  limb.  (3)  The 
turning  pole  is  hardly  suited  for  any  but  active  youths  and  trained  athletes. 
The  exercises  are  difficult,  involve  much  muscular  power,  and,  above  all,  great 
dexterity,  precision,  and  accuracy  of  movement.  The  apparatus  consists  of  a 
slanting  pole  so  adjusted  as  to  revolve  on  its  longitudinal  axis.  The  great 
difficulty  of  the  exercises  consists  in  the  maintenance  of  the  balance  on  a  pole 
which  is  not  fixed.  (4)  The  pair  of  vertical  poles  (two  parallel  poles  placed 
eighteen  inches  apart)  is  an  apparatus  only  suited  for  advanced  gymnasts. 
The  exercises  are  very  arduous,  and  demand  great  strength  and  much  prac- 
tice. They  concern  mainly  the  upper  part  of  the  trunk  and  upper  limbs. 
(5)  The  vertical  rope  varies  in  length  and  has  a  diameter  of  from  i*^  to  2 
inches.  The  exercises  resemble  those  of  the  vertical  pole,  but  are  a  little 
more  varied  and  make  more  use  of  the  lower  limbs.  (6)  llie  Rosary  con- 
sists of  a  vertical  rope  suspended  from  the  ceiling,  but  not  fixed  at  the  foot, 
upon  which  are  strung  at  intervals  of  from  ten  to  eighteen  inches  elm  beads, 
in  diameter  and  Hat  on  the  top.  This  affords  good  exercise  in 
climbing  fur  children — boys  and  girls — and  for  beginners.  It  employs  all 
the  muscles-  those  of  the  abdomen  and  back  as  well  as  those  of  the  limbs 
— it  most   particularly  the  muscles  of  the  upper  limbs.     It  gives 

exercise  to  the  muscles  about  the  hips  and  loins,  e  pecially  if  it  be  under- 

d  that  the  rope  must  always  be  kept  in  the  vertical  line.     (7)  The: 
(which  has  a  diameter  <>f  ten  to  twelve  Inches)  i>  only  suited  tor  accom- 
plished  athletes. 

The    Giant's   Stride. — This   apparatus    is    more   often   found    in   the   play- 
ground than  in  a  gymnasium,  and  i-  seldom  among  tin-  machines  contained 

in    the   room.      It  affords  good  •  fol   the  mi  the  body,  for  the 

arms,  the  legs,  th<  a,  and  the  back,     l  !:<•  exercise  Interests  children 

and  the  apparatus  i^  always  popular.     It  is  useless,  however,  if  the  e\eicise 


102  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

be  not  regulated,  and  if  children  be  not  individually  instructed  in  the  simple 
but  necessary  movements.  The  children,  moreover,  should  be  about  of  the 
same  size  and  if  possible  of  the  same  state  of  physical  development. 

It  is  common  to  see  children  on  the  giant's  stride  whose  movements  are 
aimless  and  useless,  who  swing  loosely  about,  and  who  either  hamper  the 
movements  of  the  children  behind  them  or  are  hampered  by  the  struggles  of 
the  performer  immediately  in  front  of  them.  An  undisciplined  crowd  of 
children  who  without  instruction,  selection  or  arrangement  try  to  gain  enjoy- 
ment and  strength  from  the  giant's  stride,  had  better  devote  their  energies  to 
simpler  pursuits. 

Home   Gymnasia. 

The  so-called  home  gymnasium  is  usually  more  or  less  of  a  delusion  and 
a  snare.  It  is,  as  a  rule,  too  elaborate  to  be  of  practical  value,  and  too  com- 
plicated for  children's  use.  It  often  pretends  more  than  it  can  accomplish. 
A  swing,  parallel  bars,  a  knotted  rope,  and  an  inclined  ladder,  form  excellent 
elements  in  a  home  gymnasium,  provided  the  children  have  been  already  well 
trained  by  means  of  simpler  exercises. 

A  good  machine  for  home  use  is  an  American  invention,  the  so-called 
"Excelsior"  gymnasium.  Here  the  power  of  the  performer  is  exercised 
against  weights  attached  to  ropes  passed  through  pulleys.  The  apparatus  is 
capable  of  exercising  all  the  muscles  of  the  body,  admits  of  almost  endless 
combinations,  and  can  be  graduated  to  meet  the  needs  of  a  child  or  an 
athlete.  The  rowing  exercises  on  a  sliding  seat  and  the  contrivance  for 
developing  the  muscles  of  the  back  are  in  every  way  admirable.  The 
machine  is,  moreover,  strong,  simple,  and  portable,  and  occupies  but  little 
space  in  a  room. 

The  appliances  which  owe  their  main  features  to  the  elastic  bands  are  of 
limited  use,  are  restricted  chiefly  to  the  development  of  the  upper  extremities, 
and  involve  a  very  monotonous  form  of  exercise.  A  home  gymnasium  is  a 
useful  apparatus  in  a  bathroom  or  bedroom,  where  it  can  be  used  every 
morning  before  or  after  the  morning  bath. 

In  concluding  this  part  of  the  subject,  attention  must  once  more  be 
directed  to  the  circumstance  that  a  proper  and  complete  physical  education 
cannot  be  carried  out  by  means  of  apparatus.  Apparatus  come  last  in  a 
progressive  system  of  physical  training,  and  must  always  be  used  with  great 
care  and  very  sparingly.  A  large  proportion  of  the  exercises  are  totally 
unsuited  for  young  subjects,  and  are  only  open  to  athletes  or  professed  gym- 


SPECIFIC  EXERCISES.  103 

nasts.  The  tendency  of  the  usual  apparatus  is  to  produce  an  unequal 
development  of  the  body,  to  develop  the  muscles  of  the  arms  and  shoulders 
and  pectoral  regions,  and  to  neglect  the  muscles  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
trunk  and  of  the  lower  limbs.  In  a  subsequent  section  attention  is  drawn  to 
the  deformity  produced  by  an  excessive  or  exclusive  use  of  the  usual  gym- 
nastic appliances. 

Outdoor  Games. 

It  is  quite  impossible  to  attempt  to  give  any  account  of  the  particular 
value  each  of  the  many  outdoor  games  may  possess  in  relation  to  physical 
education. 

In  general  terms  it  may  be  said  that  when  played  in  moderation  and  under 
suitable  conditions  they  are  most  excellent.  They  involve  movement  in  the 
open  air,  very  varied  muscular  exercise,  a  considerable  amount  of  healthy 
interest  and  excitement,  and  the  cultivation  of  a  certain  degree  of  skill  and 
special  adroitness.  The  parts  that  the  great  games  of  cricket  and  football 
have  played  in  the  development  of  the  English  people  can  scarcely  be  over- 
rated. 

These  games  not  only  involve  healthy  exercise  and  demand  skill,  but  they 
require  readiness  of  action,  determination,  foresight,  sound  judgment,  and 
good  temper.  They  tend  to  develop  personal  courage,  self-reliance,  the  spirit 
of  honor,  and  the  impulses  of  loyalty.  They  cultivate  all  those  qualities 
which  make  a  man  manly  and  wholesome  in  mind.  If  one  wants  to  i:eek  for 
the  sneaks  and  cowards  in  a  school,  for  the  poor-hearted  and  unwholesome- 
minded,  search  must  be  made,  not  among  the  cricket  and  football  teams,  but 
among  the  loaf 

Cri<  ket  can  be  played  at  almost  any  age,  and  is  as  well  adapted  for  young 
women  as  for  young  men.     It  i  ry  only  that  the  play<  rs  should  be  as 

nearly  equal  in  strength  as  is  possible. 

With  regard  to  the  game  of  football,  I  cannot  do  better  than  give  two 
quo'  in  Mr.  shearman's  admirable  article  in  tin-  Badminton  Lil 

volume.     r.<  fore  doing  so  it  is  needless  to  say  that  football  as  now  played  la 

ime  which  involves  great  skill  and  considerable  intelligence.    The  h< 

man  who  played  "forward"  in  days  gone  by,  and  who  could  stand   1  good 

.  and  could  hack  in  turn,  is  now  no  1  in  a  football 

team.    Other  things  being  equal,  the  more  intelligent  the  man,  the  better 

the  play<  r.     in  my  opinion  tl  r  lads  and  young 


104  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

men  equal  to  football,  whether  it  be  the  Rugby  Union  or  the  Association 
game. 

Thus  writes  Mr.  Shearman:  "For  at  least  six  centuries  the  people  have 
loved  the  work  and  struggle  of  the  rude  and  manly  game,  and  kings  with  their 
edicts,  divines  with  their  sermons,  scholars  with  their  cultured  scorn,  and 
wits  with  their  ridicule,  have  failed  to  keep  the  people  away  from  the  pastime 
they  enjoyed.  Cricket  may  at  times  have  excited  greater  interest  amongst 
the  leisured  classes ;  boat  races  may  have  drawn  larger  crowds  of  spectators 
from  distant  places ;  but  football,  which  flourished  for  centuries  before  the 
arts  of  boating  and  cricketing  were  known,  may  fairly  claim  to  be,  not  only 
the  oldest  and  the  most  characteristic,  but  the  most  essentially  popular  sport 
of  England. 

"Football  may  be  rough,  may  be  at  times  dangerous;  so  is  riding  across 
country  ;  so  is  boxing  ;  so  is  wrestling.  The  very  function  and  final  cause  of 
rough  sports  is  to  work  off  the  superfluous  animal  energy  for  which  there  is 
little  vent  in  the  piping  times  of  peace.  Since  football  became  popular  with 
all  classes,  there  have  been  less  wrenching  off  of  knockers  and  '  boxing  of 
the  watch,'  and  fewer  '  free  fights '  in  the  streets.  Football  has  its  national 
uses  quite  apart  from  the  cheap  enjoyment  it  has  given  to  thousands.  It  may 
be  rough,  but  it  is  not  brutal. 

"  Next  as  to  the  danger.  Doubtless  there  are  accidents,  and  doubtless  men 
have  been  killed  upon  the  football  field.  But  during  a  quarter  of  a  century 
how  many  thousands  of  men  have  played,  and  have  a  score  of  these  many 
thousands  lost  their  lives  ?  Fewer  than  those  who  have  been  drowned  on  the 
river,  not  a  tithe  of  those  who  have  fallen  in  the  hunting  field,  are  the  victims 
of  football.  If  the  outcry  against  football  because  of  its  danger  could  be  just- 
ified, not  a  single  outdoor  sport  could  survive. 

"  For  every  one  who  may  have  been  harmed  by  football  a  thousand  have 
benefited  by  it.  Health,  endurance,  courage,  judgment,  and,  above  all,  a 
sense  of  fair  play,  are  gained  upon  the  football  field.  A  footballer  must 
learn,  and  does  learn,  to  play  fairly  in  the  thick  and  heat  of  a  struggle. 
Such  qualities  are  those  which  make  a  nation  brave  and  great.  The  game  is 
manly  and  fit  for  Englishmen:  'it  puts  a  courage  into  their  hearts  to  meet 
an  enemy  in  the  face.'  " 


ELEMENTS  OF  PHYSICAL   ED  UC ATI  OX.  105 

THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

1 .   The  exercises  should  be  adapted  to  meet  the  needs  of  each  individual  case. 

It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  object  of  a  proper  physical  education  is 
to  develop  health  and  not  strength,  to  bring  the  body  to  its  highest  degree 
of  perfection,  and  not  to  convert  children  and  youths  into  gymnasts  and 
acrobats,  and  that  its  main  object  is  to  best  fit  the  individual  for  the  duties 
and  work  of  life,  and  not  to  elicit  proficiency  in  mere  feats  of  skill  and 
adroitness. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten,  moreover,  that  individuals  vary  greatly  in  the 
quality  of  their  physical  powers  and  in  their  capacity  for  muscular  exercise. 
It  is  just  as  impossible  to  form  a  great  mass  of  children  into  one  gymnastic 
class  as  it  is  to  place  those  children  in  one  school  standard  under  one  teacher. 
Neither  age,  height,  size,  nor  sex  affords  sure  means  of  classifying  children, 
so  far  as  the  needs  of  a  proper  physical  education  are  concerned.  Each  indi- 
vidual must  be  considered  upon  his  or  her  own  especial  merits,  and  there  is 
no  method  of  physical  training  which  is  universal  or  all-sufficing  and  adapted 
for  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  human  beings. 

The  sending  of  a  child  to  a  gymnasium,  or  the  placing  of  it  under  the  care 
of  a  drill-sergeant,  is  as  crude  a  procedure  as  the  conducting  of  a  child  within 
the  walls  of  the  first  school  met  with,  and  leaving  it  there  with  the  impression 
that  it  will  somehow  be  educated.  Physical  education  requires  as  much  care 
as  does  mental  education,  and  if  there  be  ten  "forms,"  or  "  standards,"  or 
isses  "  in  a  school  which  is  concerned  in  mental  training,  there  would 
probaby  be  at  least  as  many  forms  and  standards  in  any  institution  which 
deals  with  the  training  of  die  body. 

Instructors  in  gymnastics  and  so-called  calisthenics  arc  for  the  most  part 
somewhat  irresponsible  beings;  their  training  has  often  been  narrow  and 
incomplete,  and    their   methods   are    fixed   and    inelastic.     They  regard    their 

pupil,  in  the  aggreg  ite,  and  not  as  individu  J  t.    There  are  .it'  course  numerous 
striking  e*  epti 

to  be  hoped  that  a  time  will  come  when  those  who  prol  in  the 

body  will  be  required  to  produce  as  definite  evidences  of  fitn  de- 

manded .it  tho  c  who  aim  a1  training  the  mind. 

1   England— the   National   Health  Society— has  prepared  a 
imination  of  instructors  in  gymnastics  and  for  the  granting 
of  diplomas  and  certifii  ites  to  such  as  attain  to  the  pre  tandard. 

8 


106  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION. 

Such  a  scheme  has  been  carried  out  in  America,  and  serves  not  only  to 
do  justice  to  competent  teachers  on  the  one  hand,  but  to  protect  the  public 
on  the  other.  The  National  Health  Society  requires,  among  other  things,  that 
the  candidate  shall  possess  a  certain  knowledge  of  elementary  anatomy,  of  the 
physiology  of  bodily  exercise,  of  the  various  methods  of  physical  training, 
and  of  the  details  of  the  various  exercises  and  the  uses  of  all  gymnastic 
apparatus  and  appliances.  The  candidate  is  required,  moreover,  to  produce 
evidence  of  physical  fitness  and  of  a  proper  training  in  some  recognised  gym- 
nasium or  training  school. 

The  casual,  perfunctory,  and  unmethodical  manner  in  which  physical  train- 
ing in  many  schools  is  carried  out  at  the  present  day  is  very  lamentable. 

The  need  of  a  proper  training  is  especially  felt  in  girls'  schools,  in  schools 
which  are  patronised  by  the  lower  middle  class,  and  in  the  elementary  schools 
controlled  by  the  Education  Act. 

In  the  great  public  schools,  and  at  the  two  great  English  universities, 
physical  education  is  in  a  very  flourishing  and  exuberant  condition,  and  only 
in  need  perhaps  of  a  little  more  method,  a  little  more  science,  and  a  little 
more  regard  for  the  individual  and  the  development  of  the  feeble  as  well  as 
of  the  strong. 

The  first  necessity  in  physical  education  is  a  knowledge  of  the  condition, 
the  wants,  and  the  possibilities  of  the  individuals  to  be  educated.  This  can 
only  be  obtained  by  an  individual  inspection.  It  would  be  well  if  in  the 
elementary  schools  a  plan  such  as  the  following  could  be  carried  out.  Each 
child  on  entering  the  school  should  have  a  book  in  which  the  following  details 
should  be  entered  : — 

i.  Name;  2.  Age;  3.  Height;  4.  Weight;  5.  General  aspect  and  phy- 
sique (the  entries  under  this  heading  could  be  greatly  extended  and  be  made 
of  much  service  if  a  competent  medical  man  made  the  inspection)  ;  6.  Chest 
girth;  7.  Breathing  capacity  ;  8.  Span  of  arms;  9.  Girth  of  arms  ;  10.  Draw- 
ing or  pulling  power  as  tested  ;  11.  Girth  of  legs  ;  12.  The  existence  of  any 
evident  deformity,  defect,  or  disease.  (This  section  could  only  be  properly 
developed  by  a  medical  man.  The  conditions  dealt  with  would  be  such  as 
the  following  :  spinal  curvature,  hernia,  rickets,  deformed  thorax,  stiff  joints, 
infantile  paralysis,  enlarged  tonsils,  glandular  disease,  lung  disease,  condition 
of  abdominal  viscera,  evidence  of  convulsions,  etc.) 

In  this  last  section  much  could  be  done  by  a  properly  trained  teacher, 
but  a  medical  inspector  would  render  the  evidence  in  every  way  of  greater 
value. 


ELEMENTS  OF  PHYSICAL   EDUCATIOX.  107 

The  child's  physical  condition  should  be  inquired  into  with  as  much  care  as 
is  exercised  in  examining  an  adult  for  life  insurance.  The  urine  should  be 
tested  if  possible,  and  if  the  parents  can  be  seen  the  child's  family  history 
should  be  inquired  into. 

Still,  apart  from  an  examination  by  a  medical  man,  the  twelve  points  pre- 
scribed would  form  the  basis  of  a  valuable  record,  and  place  the  physical 
education  of  the  child  upon  a  rational  footing.  Such  a  record  should  be  kept 
also  of  all  individuals  attending  gymnasia  and  undergoing  any  form  of  physi- 
cal training.  Upon  the  evidence  afforded  the  precise  exercises  which 
were  desirable  and  the  precise  methods  of  training  to-be  carried  out  could  be 
determined. 

The  record  may  well  be  extended,  and  could  with  great  advantage  record 
a  test  of  the  child's  vision,  and  add  evidence  on  the  questions  of  astigmatism 
and  colour-blindness.  This  record,  kept  in  the  form  of  a  book,  should  be 
filled  up  every  three  months.  If  properly  kept,  the  value  of  such  a  book 
would  be  enormous.  To  the  individual  it  would  possess  more  than  mere  in- 
terest. It  would  show  the  history  of  his  early  life,  the  record  of  his  develop- 
ment, and  would  afford  an  admirable  guide  to  any  medical  man,  should  the 
individual  in  the  future  become  the  subject  of  disease. 

Mental  training  is  exceedingly  important  without  doubt,  but  it  may  be 
that  the  time  will  come  when  the  Government  of  this  country  will  recognise 
the  importance  of  physical  training,  and  will  realise  that  among  the  children 
in  elementary  schools  a  strong  body  is  almost  as  important  as,  and  often  more 
useful  than,  a  well-stored  mind.  Many  of  those  children  arc  turned  out  into 
the  world  pale,  sickly,  ill-developed,  and  feeble.  That  at  present  many  un- 
remediable  causes  may  conspire  to  prudence  this  is  evident  enough,  but  the 
state  of  1  tusceptible  of  improvement    The  health  and  Btrength  and 

physique  of  the  poorer  classes  may  l>e  placed  upon  a  better  basis,  and  a 

number  of  Sturdy  and    Strong  men  and    women    produced  in  the  place  of  the 

multitude  of  poor  creatures  who  after  a  more  doleful  and  useless  life 

become  prematurely  a  burden  upon  tl 

The  tic  examination  of  the  individual  and  the  conducting  of  a 

physical  education  upon  precise  and  scientific  grounds  have  already  been 

carried  out  in  some  1  ities  in    \m<  • 

An  excellent  account  of   lome  of  these  institutions  will  be  found  in  the 

rd  of  the  Physical  Training  Conference  held  a1  boston  in  t8 
1.   The  exercise*  should  be  carefully  dew  'malicalt)  '.  <///</ 

suitably  graduated. 


10S  PHYSICAL   EDUCATION. 

The  course  of  education  should  be  planned  upon  a  definite  system  and 
the  classes  formed,  and  when  occasion  demands  remodelled,  according  to  the 
physical  status  of  the  individual  members. 

The  exercises  must  be  graduated,  and  no  attempt  made  to  pass  from  one 
series  until  the  more  elementary  stages  have  been  mastered. 

It  is  of  especial  importance  that  none  of  the  more  complicated,  difficult, 
and  arduous  exercises  should  be  forced  upon  those  who  are  physically  unfit. 
They  must  be  always — from  the  learner's  standpoint — moderate  and  pro- 
gressive. 

It  is  desirable  also  that  the  lessons  should  be  as  varied  and  as  interesting 
as  possible,  and  that  reasonable  opportunity  be  given  for  competition  and  the 
encouragement  of  those  who  are  specially  fitted  to  excel. 

The  exercises  should  aim  at  the  equal  employment  of  all  the  muscles,  and 
not  at  the  development  of  a  few.  The  work  in  an  ordinary  gymnasium  tends 
to  throw  strain  mainly  upon  the  upper  extremities,  while  most  of  the  out- 
door games  tend  to  develop  the  lower  limbs.  No  great  good  can  be  ob- 
tained from  tedious  drilling  and  purposeless  marching,  and  the  time  devoted 
to  physical  training  should  never  be  so  fully  absorbed  as  to  allow  no  leisure 
for  games  and  other  pleasant  forms  of  recreation. 

In  any  instance  violent  intermittent  exercises  should  be  forbidden,  and  the 
performance  of  feats  of  strength  should  never  come  within  the  scope  of  the 
educational  scheme. 

3.  The  exercises  should  be  carried  out  under  proper  guidance,  and  with 
suitable  and  efficierit  apparatus. 

The  teacher  should  be  capable  of  instructing  a  large  class — a  qualification 
which  is  not  commonly  possessed. 

4.  The  time  for  the  exercises  should  be  carefully  selected. 

Violent  exercise  after  a  full  meal  is  obviously  bad,  and  a  course  of 
physical  instruction  should  not  be  carried  out  in  the  case  of  children  who  are 
tired  from  a  long  day's  attendance  in  school,  or  who  are  feeble  for  want  of 
food. 

In  the  matter  of  schools  it  is  well  that  the  period  for  physical  training 
should  be  interpolated  among  the  hours  devoted  to  ordinary  school  work.  If 
between  the  hours  of  nine  and  twelve  or  nine  and  one  the  children  could  be 
allowed  to  take  systematic  exercise  for  thirty  minutes,  either  in  the  open  air 
or  in  some  suitable  building  other  than  the  schoolroom,  they  would  be  found 
to  be  actually  refreshed  by  the  change  of  occupation,  to  enjoy  a  period  of 
mental  rest,  and  to  return  to  their  work  with  vigour. 


FORMS   OF  EXERCISE.  109 

Another  half-hour  could  be  introduced  during  the  progress  of  the  afternoon 
lessons.  The  Rev.  E.  Warre,  one  of  the  masters  at  Eton,  advises  that  a 
schoolboy's  day  should  be  disposed  of  as  follows :  Rest  ten  hours,  work  seven 
hours,  meals  and  play  seven  hours. 

So  far  as  adults  are  concerned,  the  taking  of  violent  exercise  in  the  eve- 
ning after  a  long  and  arduous  day's  work  is  often  injurious  in  its  result. 

There  is  no  time  better  than  the  early  morning,  before  the  labours  of  the 
day  are  commenced. 

Adults  who  have  been  accustomed  to  exercises  of  strength  and  endurance 
should  return  but  cautiously  to  such  pursuits  if  they  have  passed  through  a 
long  period  of  rest  from  exercise  and  are  out  of  condition.  A  man  may  ride 
fifty  miles  a  day  on  a  bicycle  very  easily  in  the  autumn,  but  he  would  be  very 
unwise  to  attempt  such  a  distance  in  the  following  spring,  provided  that  he 
had  taken  no  exercise  during  the  winter. 

5 .  Exercises,  so  far  as  is  possible,  should  be  taken  in  the  open  air  or  in  a 
large  and  very  well-ventilated  room. 

6.  Those  who  are  taking  systematic  exercise  should  be  properly  clad. 

The  garments  should  be  light,  loose,  and  made  of  wool.  It  is  desirable 
that  care  be  taken  not  to  catch  cold  by  standing  about  in  clothes  which  are 
damp  with  perspiration. 

This  question  of  clothing  is  more  fully  dealt  with  in  another  section  of  this 
work. 

FORMS  OF  EXERCISE. 

So  far  as  any  classification  can  be  made — and  it  must  of  necessity  be 
rough — exercises  may  be  divided  into  the  following  classes: 

1 .  Exercises  of  Strength. 

These  involve  actual  and  considerable  muscular  power,  and  arc  illustrated 
by  advanced  exercises  in  the  gymnasium,  with  apparatus  such  as  the 
horizontal  bar,  the  trapeze,  the  rings.  In  a  special  category  may  be  placed 
what  maybe  termed  feats  of  strength,  such  as  lifting  great  weights,  putting 
the  shot,  throwing  the  hammer,  and  the  like. 

These  exercises  involve  "  effort,"  *'.  e.  the  muscular  position  in  which  the 

man   takes  a  deep  breath,  and    then,  when  his  chest   is  full,  closes  his  glottis, 

so  that  he  may  make  the  thorax  a  fixed  base  from  which  the  upper  limbs  c  in 


no       N  PHYSICAL   EDUCATION. 

act.  During  the  performance  of  the  movement  he  does  not  breathe,  his  face 
becomes  engorged,  and  the  veins  which  stand  out  upon  his  forehead  demon- 
strate the  distended  condition  of  the  right  side  of  the  heart.  It  is  during 
"  effort "  that  some  sudden  and  fatal  accidents  have  occurred,  such  as 
rupture  of  the  heart  and  the  giving  way  of  blood-vessels. 

2.  Exercises  of  Speed  or  of  Rapid  Movement. 

These  include  running  in  all  its  forms  and  such  exercises  as  involve 
very  rapid  and  continued  movements.  The  individual  muscular  contrac- 
tions are  not  extreme,  but  they  are  very  quickly  repeated.  The  amount  of 
work  performed  is  distributed  over  a  considerable  period,  and  is  not,  as  in 
exercises  of  strength,  concentrated  into  a  few  moments. 

These  exercises  are  susceptible  of  considerable  modification,  and  range 
from  the  extreme  effort  of  the  sprint  runner  to  the  easier  movements  of  the 
paper-chaser  or  of  the  devotee  of  the  skipping-rope. 

Certain  forms  of  gymnastic  exercise  rank  in  this  class.  The  movements 
tend  to  develop  the  respiratory  capacity,  and  are  the  exercises  which  soon 
bring  about  the  state  of  breathlessness. 

3.  Exercises  of  Endurance. 

In  these  the  muscular  effort  is  inconsiderable  at  any  given  moment,  and  is 
distributed  over  a  still  longer  period  of  time. 

Neither  breathlessness  nor  rapid  muscular  exhaustion  arrests  the  subject  of 
the  exercise.  The  continuance  of  his  movements  becomes  a  matter  merely 
of  endurance.  Walking  is  a  type  of  this  variety.  And  in  the  same  class 
must  be  placed  many  outdoor  games,  skating,  rowing  and  cycling,  drilling, 
and  such  exercises  as  are  generally  included  under  the  term  Swedish  gym- 
nastics. 

In  the  training  of  the  body  the  exercises  of  endurance  must  occupy  the 
first,  the  most  prominent,  and  the  most  important  place. 

4.  Exercises  of  Skill 

Are  illustrated  by  the  more  complex  gymnastic  exercises,  such  as  those  which 
involve  balancing,  etc.,  by  fencing  and  any  other  movements  which  imply, 
not  necessarily  severe  or  continued  muscular  exertion,  but  great  activity  of 
the  brain  and  spinal  cord. 

The  fencer  in  his  earlier  days  becomes  weary  in  his  body,  but  as  he  be- 


FORMS   OF  EXERCISE.  in 

comes  more  experienced  he  "feels"  the  exercise,  not  in  his  muscles,  but  in 
his  nervous  system. 

5.  Exercises  which  Develop  the  Chest 

May  on  account  of  their  importance  be  especially  classified.  The  exercises 
which  come  under  this  class  are  such  as  tend  to  develop  the  muscles  of  the 
chest — namely,  the  pectorals,  the  serratus  magnus,  the  latissimus  dorsi,  the 
anterior  abdominal  muscles,  and  some  others  of  lesser  importance. 

This,  however,  is  not  all.  As  Dr.  Lagrange  has  pointed  out,  the  size  of  the 
thoracic  cavity  can  only  be  increased  by  increasing  the  volume  of  its  contents, 
the  lungs.  "  It  is  from  within  outwards,"  writes  that  author,  "  that  the  force 
capable  of  expanding  the  chest  acts,  and  it  is  in  reality  to  the  lungs,  and  not 
to  the  muscles,  that  the  chief  share  in  the  changes  in  form  and  size  of  the 
chest  belongs.  The  most  powerful  inspiratory  muscles  cannot  raise  the  ribs, 
unless  the  lungs  participate  in  the  movement  of  expansion,  and  on  the  other 
hand  the  lungs  can  raise  the  ribs  without  the  aid  of  the  muscles,  for  the  chests, 
of  emphysematous  patients  remain  vaulted  in  spite  of  their  efforts  to  lower 
the  ribs  and  complete  the  respiratory  movement.  .  .  .  Mountaineers  all  have 
large  chests,  and  the  Indians  who  live  on  the  high  plateaux  of  the  Cordillera 
in  the  Andes  have  been  noted  for  the  extraordinary  size  of  their  chests.  .  .  . 
Singers  with  no  exercise  but  singing  acquire  great  respiratory  power  and  a 
remarkable  increase  in  the  dimensions  of  their  chests." 

The  exercises  needed,  therefore,  should  not  only  be  such  as  develop 
the  muscles  of  the  upper  part  of  the  trunk,  but  such  also  as  increase  the 
volume  of  the  respiratory  movements.  Among  the  latter  would  be  placed, 
so  far  as  children  are  especially  concerned,  running,  skipping,  rapid  limb 
movements,  and  active  is  in  the  open  air. 

Many  children  are  born  with  deformed  mid  Darrow chests  which  they  in- 
herit from  their  parents ;  in  others  the  thorax  his  been  distorted  by  rickets, 
by  lung  affei  tions,  or  by  spinal  disea  <•.  <  me  potenl  factor  in  the  production 
of  a  narrow  chest,  outside  these  1  the  hypertrophied  tonsil. 

[t  is  anomalous  to  child  to  take  ea  requiring  vigorous  respir- 

atory movements  when  enlarged  tonsils  so  block  up  the  opening  into  the  air- 
I  prevent  the  free  entrance  of  air. 


ii2  PHYSICAL   EDUCATION. 

THE  SELECTION  OF  EXERCISES  ACCORDING  TO   INDIVIDUAL 

NEEDS. 

Children. 

The  physical  training  of  children  should  be  commenced  early,  should  be 
made  as  interesting  as  possible,  and  be  represented  in  the  main  by  what  may 
be  termed  scientific  romping. 

The  exercises  should  be  given  whenever  possible  in  classes.  To  set  a  child 
to  execute  formal  movements  with  dumb-bell  or  bar-bell  when  alone,  and  to 
march  with  no  one  for  company,  is  a  little  dismal. 

The  set  exercises  should  not  be  too  formal,  and  never  be  too  long,  and  in 
no  instance  should  they  be  allowed  to  take  the  place  of  the  ordinary  outdoor 
games  of  children. 

Games  which  involve  shouting  should  be  encouraged,  and  a  very  prominent 
position  given  to  running,  skipping,  games  with  balls,  and  jumping.  The 
most  rudimentary  of  all  games,  "  touch,"  is  one  of  the  most  excellent.  The 
upper  limbs  may  be  encouraged  by  such  amusements  as  battledore  and 
shuttlecock,  and  the  lower  by  such  a  game  as  hop-scotch. 

The  set  exercises  should  take  the  form  of  what  are  known  as  Swedish 
gymnastics,  the  vocal  march,  musical  drill,  and  the  class  exercises  with 
dumb-bell  and  bar-bell. 

Children  should  avoid  exercises  of  strength,  and  in  the  main,  exercises  of 
speed.  They  are  best  suited  for  exercises  which  involve  moderate  endurance, 
and  such  as  require  no  great  mental  effort  to  follow. 

In  the  matter  of  gymnastic  appliances  there  is  little  need  of  especial  work. 
The  subject  is  considered  in  the  description  of  gymnastic  apparatus.  The 
principal  of  these,  from  the  children's  standpoint,  are  the  climbing  rope,  the 
inclined  ladder,  the  vaulting  horse,  the  parallel  bars. 

Girls  and  Women. 
The  physical  condition  of  a  large  proportion  of  the  girls  and  women  in 
this  country  is  quite  deplorable,  especially  among  the  middle  and  upper 
classes.  A  well- developed,  perfectly  proportioned  girl  who  is  possessed  of 
normal  muscular  strength,  who  can  walk  naturally,  and  can  carry  herself  with 
grace,  attracts  attention.  The  wretched  physical  state  of  a  large  proportion 
of  modern  girls — especially  of  those  who  inhabit  the  large  towns — is  apt  to  be 
ascribed,  not  to  a  totally  neglected  education,  but  to  the  belief  that  growing 


SELECTION   OE  EXERCISES.  113 

girls   are  always    awkward,  uncouth,   and  weedy.     This    belief  is  not  well 
founded. 

The  unfortunate  girl  is  encouraged  to  be  dull,  to  be  prim,  to  be  subdued, 
to  suppress  the  outbursts  of  pure  animal  spirits.  She  is  more  or  less  under 
the  curse  of  that  detestable  adjective  "  lady-like."  She  spends  hours  in  an  ill- 
ventilated  schoolroom  and  upon  a  piano-stool,  and  the  rest  of  her  time  is 
occupied  in  eating  and  sleeping,  in  preparing  lessons,  in  stooping  over  needle- 
work, and  in  taking  formal  walks  with  the  governess.  Her  clothes  are  prob- 
ably a  collection  of  hygienic  errors. 

It  is  not  to  be  wondered  that  a  girl  so  fostered  is  often  a  melancholy  speci- 
men of  her  species.  She  may  be  highly  educated  and  the  mistress  of  many 
accomplishments,  she  may  be  cultured  and  "refined"  according  to  the 
boarding-school  standard,  but  she  will  at  the  same  time  be  probably  more  or 
less  unfitted  for  the  struggle  of  life  and  the  mere  circumstances  which  attend 
living. 

There  is  something  about  the  "  higher  education  "  of  the  modern  girl  which 
is  comparable  to  the  manufacture  of  the  finest  Sevres  china.  The  result  is 
beautiful  from  the  designer's  standpoint,  but  the  cup  is  delicate  ;  it  cannot  be 
used  in  daily  life,  and  it  must  be  kept  in  a  cabinet. 

A  good  digestion  and  an  active  liver  are  more  useful  in  the  battle  of  life 
than  a  knowledge  of  advanced   mathematics,  and  sturdy  limbs  and  strong 
hands  are  of  more  value  to  the  mother  of  children  than  even  decimal   ■■ 
tions  and  a  familiarity  with  irregular  verbs. 

The  lady-like  girl  is  encouraged  to  keep  her  hands  "  fine,"  to  have  them 
compressed  by  gloves  and  protected  from  light,  and  to  use  them  as  littl 
possible  in  order  that  she  might  produce  the  wan,  feeble  appendage  which 
constitutes  the  lady-like  hand,  and  which  is  put  to  little  more  use  than  to  set 
.  The  face  must  be  protected  from  the  sun  by  sunshades  and 
veils,  the  pink  and  white  complexion  of  the  invalid  must  be  imitated.  It 
would  appear  that  the  lady-like  are  always  delicate,  and  a  certain  unobstrui 
feebleness  and  flabbiness  are  signs  of  refinement  and  influence  in 

the  world,  for    1   (  ipatity  to  enjoy  the   purest   pleasures  of  life,  and  as  an  e\ 

ample  of  all  the  finest  qualities  "t  womanhood,  no  one  among  the  "higher 
educated  "  can  compare  with  such  an  one  as  the  ••  Nut  Brown  Maid."  The 
ballad  of  the  "  Nut  Brown  Maid  "might  well  be  upon  the  wall  oi 

every  "  finishing  "  school  for  young  ladies. 
A  negta  ted  physical  edu(  ation  produces  a  sorry  obje<  t       pale  child  with. 


ii4  PHYSICAL   EDUCATION. 

a  poking  head,  a  narrow  chest,  an  unshapely  back,  a  shuffling  or  mincing  gait, 
and  an  ungainly  carriage.  She  is  without  grace  and  without  the  capacity  for 
vigorous  physical  enjoyment.  Her  ankles  and  wrists  are  clumsy,  her  com- 
plexion is  dull,  and  if  her  circulation  be  bad — as  is  not  unusual — her  sodden- 
looking  purplish  arms  are  covered  with  a  fine  down.  When  she  grows  up  to 
womanhood  she  finds  herself  unfitted  for  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  a 
wife  and  mother.  She  has  little  strength  to  withstand  the  hardships  of  life, 
and  less  capacity  to  enjoy  its  pleasures.  She  is  nervous,  querulous,  frail,  and 
in  more  respects  than  one  a  poor  creature.  Walking  makes  her  tired,  the  sea 
makes  her  sick,  the  sun  makes  her  head  ache,  the  wind  makes  her  chilly, 
effort  of  any  unusual  kind  reduces  her  to  a  general  wreck.  The  number  of 
women  who  can  travel  without  fussing  and  knocking  up,  and  who  can  climb  a 
ship's  side  and  make  their  way  across  a  heavy  moor,  and  can,  indeed,  become 
companions  to  their  husbands  and  brothers  in  the  milder  of  these  outdoor 
sports,  is  not  considerable. 

Younger  girls  may  pursue  the  exercises  named  in  dealing  with  the  edu- 
cation of  children.  Those  who  are  a  little  older  have  an  infinite  variety  of 
healthy  pursuits  at  their  service — running,  skipping,  outdoor  games  of  all 
kinds,  riding,  skating,  swimming,  cricket,  games  with  balls,  archery,  tennis, 
climbing  (in  a  moderate  form),  and  certain  exercises  in  the  gymnasium. 
They  should  practice  also  such  movements  as  develop  the  abdominal  muscles, 
and  should  never  neglect  rowing. 

Fencing  in  moderation  is  admirable ;  a  tendency  to  fiat  feet  and  weak 
ankles  may  be  met  with  by  such  simple  games  as  hop-scotch,  by  dancing  (in 
the  open  air),  by  learning  Scotch  dances  and  the  hornpipe.  Cycling  may,  I 
think,  be  avoided,  and  I  am  under  the  impression  that  jumping  may  well  be 
dispensed  with  in  girls  who  have  passed  the  period  of  puberty. 

For  women  such  exercises  as  have  been  just  detailed  are  open,  with  the 
obvious  modifications  which  their  age  and  dispositions  suggest. 

Rowing  is  an  admirable  exercise  for  women  up  to  almost  any  age. 

The  matter  of  clothing  need  only  be  briefly  alluded  to.  It  is  of  little  use 
to  expect  great  good  from  walking  exercises  if  tight  boots  are  worn,  with 
high  ankles  and  high  heels.  Corsets  are  an  abomination,  and  rowing  in 
corsets  forms  a  means  of  developing  a  pendulous  abdomen  and  the  condi- 
tions which  lead  to  hernia. 


SELECTION   OF  EXERCISES.  115 

Lads 

Between  fourteen  and  eighteen  have  almost  every  form  of  exercise  and  physi- 
cal recreation  open  to  them.  They  should  avoid  exercises  of  strength  and 
feats  of  strength,  and  exercises  of  extreme  speed  such  as  sprint  running. 

Adults 
Between  eighteen  and  twenty-five  have  the  whole  of  the  joys  of  the  athletic 
world  open  to  them,  and  if  a  man  keep  in  training  and  in  practice  his  period 
of  athletic  life  may  be  extended  to  thirty. 

The  Middle-aged  and  Elderly 
Must   anticipate   a    progressive   curtailment  of  their   more   active   pursuits. 
There  remain,  however,  walking  and  all  the  milder  forms  of  outdoor  exercise 
— riding,  skating,  cycling,  and  the  use  of  the  simpler  gymnastic  apparatus. 
After  thirty  very  few  individuals,  indeed,  are  capable  of  undertaking  exen 
of  speed  without  actual  risk. 


CATALOGUE 
No.  1. 


FEBRUARY,  1892. 

CATALOGUE 


MEDICAL,  DENTAL, 

PHARMACEUTICAL  AND  SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS, 
WITH  A  SUBJECT  INDEX, 

PUBLISHED  BY 

P.  BLAKISTON,  SON  &  CO., 

(Successors  to  Lindsay  &  Blakiston) 

PUBLISHERS,    IMPORTERS    AND    BOOKSELLERS, 
IOI2  WALNUT  ST.,  PHILADELPHIA. 


THE  FOLLOWING  CATALOGUES  WILL  BE   SENT  FREE  TO  ANY  ADDRESS, 
UPON  APPLICATION. 

This  Catalogue,  No.  I,  including  all  of  our  own  publications. 

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Sanitary  Science,  etc. 

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books and  Manuals  for  medical  students. 

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Gould's  New  Medical  Dictionary  now  ready.     See  page  4. 


CLASSIFIED   LIST,  WITH    PRICES, 

OF  ALL  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 
P.  BLAKISTON,  SON  &  CO.,  PHILADELPHIA. 

When  the  price  is  not  given  below,  the  book  is  out  of  print  or  about  to  be  published. 
Cloth  binding,  unless  otherwise  specified.     For  full  descriptions,  see  following  Catalogue. 


AN/ESTHETICS. 

Buxton.     Anaesthetics.    -        $ 

Sansom.     Chlorotorm.    -  1.25 

Turnbull.     3d  Ed.            -  3.00 

ANATOMY. 

Ballou.     Veterinary  Anat.  1.00 

Heath.  Practical.  7th  Ed.  5.00 
Holden.  Dissector.  Oil-cloth,  4.50 

Osteology.    -        -  6.00 

Landmarks.     4th  Ed.  1.25 

Macalister's  Text-Book. 

816  Illus.  Clo.  7.50;  Sh.  8.50 

Potter.       Compend   of.       5th 

Ed.     133  Illustrations.  -  1.00 

Sutton.     Ligaments.         -  1.25 

ATLASES  AND  DIAGRAMS. 
Flower.     Of  Nerves.      -  3.50 

Marshall's    Phys.  and  Anat. 
Diagrams.  #40.00  and    60.00 

BRAIN  AND  INSANITY. 
Blackburn.     Autopsies.     -       1.25 
Bucknill  and  Tuke.    Psycho- 
logical Medicine.    -        -  8.00 
Gowers.      Diagnosis   of   Dis- 
eases of  the  Brain.    New  Ed.  2.00 
Lewis,  (Bevan).     Mental 

Diseases.         ...  6.00 

Mann's  Psychological  Med.  5.00 
Wood.     Brain  and  Overwork.     .50 

CHEMISTRY. 
See  Technological  Books. 
Allen.     Commercial     Organic 
Analysis.  2d  Ed.  Volume  I.  

Volume  II.  -         -  

Volume  III.     Part  I.    4.50 

Bartley.  Medical.  2d  Ed.  2.50 
Bloxam's  Text-Book.  7th  Ed.  4.50 
Bowman's  Practical.       -  2.00 

Groves  and  Thorp.     Chemi- 
cal Technology.  Vol.  I.  Fuels  7.50 

Holland's  Urine,  Poisons  and 

Milk.     4th  Ed.  -        -         1. 00 

Leffmann's  New  Compend.      1.00 

,  Progressive  Exercises.   1.00 

Muter.     Pract.  and  Anal.  2.00 

Ramsay.  Inorganic.  Illus.  4.50 
Richter's  Inorganic.     3d  Ed.    2.00 

Organic.     2d  Ed.  4.50 

Smith.     Llectro-Chem.  Anal.  1.00 
Smith  and  Keller.      Experi- 
ments.    2d  Ed.     Illus.     Net,   .60 

Stammer.  Problems.  -  .75 
Sutton.     Volumetric  Anal.        5.00 

Symonds.     Manual  of.  2.00 

Trimble.     Analytical.      -  1.50 

Watts.     (Fowne's)  Inorg.  2.25 

(Fowne's)  Organ.  2.25 

Wolff.  Applied  Medical.  1.00 
Woody.  Essentials  of.  3d  Ed.  1.25 

CHILDREN. 

Goodhart  and  Starr.  3.00;  Sh.  3.50 
Hale.     Care  of.  -  .75 

Hatfield.     Compend  of.  1.00 

Meigs.      Infant    Feeding    and 

Milk.  Analysis.  -  1.00 
Meigs  and  Pepper's  Treatise. 5. 00 
Money.  Treatment  of.  -  3.00 
Muskett.  Treatment  of.  1.75 
Osier.  Cerebral  Palsies  of.  2.00 
Smith.  Wasting  Diseases  of.  3.00 
Starr.  Digestive  Organs  ot.  2.25 
Hygiene  of  the  Nursery.  1.00 


CLINICAL  CHARTS. 
Davis.     Obstetrical.     Pads,    $  .50 
Griffiths.     Graphic.         "  .50 

Temperature  Charts.    "  .50 

COM  P  ENDS 
And  The  Quiz- Commends. 
Ballou.     Veterinary  Anat.        1.00 
Brubaker's  Physiol.  6th  Ed,   1.00 
Fox  and  Gould.     The  Eye.   1.00 
Hatfield.     Children.  -         1.00 

Horwitz.  Surgery.  4th  Ed.  1.00 
Hughes.  Practice.  2  Pts.  Ea.  1.00 
Landis.  Obstetrics.  4th  Ed.  1.00 
Leffmann's  Chemistry.  3d  Ed.  1 .00 
Mason.     Electricity.        -  1.00 

Morris.     Gynaecology.     -  1.00 

Potter's    Anatomy,   5th  Ed.     1.00 

Materia  Medica.  5th  Ed.  1. 00 

Stewart,  Pharmacy.  3d  Ed.  1.00 
Warren.     Dentistry.         -         1.00 

DEFORMITIES. 
Reeves.      Bodily    Deformities 


5.00 
4.00 
1. 00 

•5° 


and  their  Treatment.     Illus.   2.25 

DENTISTRY. 
Barrett.     Dental  Surg.    -  1.25 

Blodgett.  Dental  Pathology.  1.75 
Flagg.     Plastic  Filling.  -  4.00 

Fillebrown.  Op.  Dent.  Illus.  2.50 
Gorgas.  Dental  Medicine.  3.50 
Harris.     Principles  and  Prac.  7.00 

Dictionary  of.     5th  Ed.  5.00 

Heath.     Dis.  of  Jaws.     -         4.50 

Lectures  on  Jaws.  Bds.  1.00 

Leber    and     Rottenstein. 

Caries.  Paper  75 

Richardson.  Mech.  Dent.  4.50 
Sewell.  Dental  Surg.  -  3.00 
Stocken.  Materia  Medica.  2.50 
Taft.    Operative  Dentistry.       4.2; 

,  Index  of  Dental  Lit.       2.00 

Talbot.  Irregularity  of  Teeth.  3.00 
Tomes.     Dental  Surgery. 

Dental  Anatomy. 

Warren's  Compend  of.     - 
White.    Mouth  and  Teeth. 

DICTIONARIES. 
Cleveland's  Pocket  Medical.     .75 
Gould's  New  Medical  Diction- 
ary.    l/2   Lea.,  3.25;   %  Mor. 
Thumb  index.     -  4.25 

Harris'  Dental.  Clo.  5.00;  Shp.  6.00 
Longley's  Pronouncing  -  1.00 

Maxwell.  Terminologia  Med- 
ica Polyglotta.  -        -        4.00 
Treves.     German  English.        3.75 

DIRECTORY. 
Medical,  of  Philadelphia,    2.50 

EAR. 
Burnett.     Hearing,  etc.  .50 

Pritchard.     Diseases  of.  1.50 

ELECTRICITY. 

Bigelow.  Plain  Talks  on  Medi- 
cal Electricity.     43  Illus.  1.00 

Mason's  Compend  of  Electric- 
ity and  its  Medical  and  Sur- 
gical Uses.         ...        1. 00 

EYE. 
Arlt.  Diseases  of.  -  -  2.50 
Fox  and  Gould.  Compend.  1.00 
Gower's  Ophthalmoscopy.  5.50 
Harlan.  Eyesight.  -  .50 
Hartridge.  Retraction.  5thEd.  1.75 
Ophthalmoscope.     -  1.50 


Higgins.  Practical  Manual.  #1.75 
Liebreich.  Atlas  of  Ophth.  15.00 
Macnamara.  Diseases  of.  4x0 
Meyer  and  Fergus.  Com- 
plete Text-Book,  with  Colored 
Plates.  270  Illus.  Clo.  4.50:  Sh.5.50 
Morton.  Refraction.  4th  Ed.  1.00 
Ophthalmic  Review. 

Monthly.  -  3.00 

Swanzy's  Handbook.  3d  Ed.  3.00 

FEVERS. 
Collie,  On  Fevers.   -  2.50 


Day. 


HEADACHES. 
Their  Treatment,  etc. 


1.25 


HEALTH  AND  DOMESTIC 
MEDICINE. 
Bulkley.    The  Skin.        -  .50 

Burnett.     Hearing.  -  .50 

Cohen.  Throat  and  Voice.  .50 
Dulles.  Emergencies.  3d  Ed.  .75 
Harlan.  Eyesight. 
Hartshorne.  Our  Homes. 
Hufeiand.  Long  Life.  - 
Lincoln.  Hygiene. 
Osgood.  Dangers  of  Winter. 
Packard.  Sea  Air,  etc. 
Richardson's  Long  Life. 
Tanner.  On  Poisons.  6th  Ed. 
White.  Mouth  and  Teeth. 
Wilson.  Summer  and  its  Dis, 
■Wood.     Brain  Work. 


•5° 
.50 
1. 00 
•5° 
•5° 
•So 
•50 
75 
•5° 
.50 
.50 


HISTOLOGY. 
See  Microscope  and  Pathology. 

HYGIENE. 

See  Water. 

Fox.     Water,  Air,  Food.  4.00 

Lincoln.     School  Hygiene.         .50 

Parke's  (E.)  Hygiene.  8th  Ed.  5.C0 

(L.  C.),  Manual.  2.50 

Starr.  Hygiene  of  the  Nursery.  1.00 
Wilson's  Handbook  of.  -         

JOURNALS,  .Etc. 
Archives  of  Surgery.  4  Nos.  3.00 
Jl.  of  Dermatology.    "     "     3.00 
Ophthalmic  Review.   "      "     3.00 
New  Sydenham  Society's 

Publications     -         -        -        8.00 


i-75 
2-75 


KIDNEY  DISEASES 
Beale.     Renal  and  Urin. 
Ralfe.     Dis.  of  Kidney,  etc. 
Thornton.     Surg,  of  Kidney.   1.75 
Tyson.     Bright's   Disease 

and  Diabetes,  Illus.  -        3-5° 

LUNGS  AND  CHEST. 

See  Phy.  Diagnosis  and  Throat. 

Hare.     Mediastinal  Disease.     2.00 


MASSAGE. 
Murrell.     Massage.  5th  Ed. 
Ostrom.   Massage.  87  Illus. 


1.50 
1. 00 


MATERIA  MEDICA. 
Biddle.     nth  Ed.  Clo.  4.25 

Gorgas.     Dental.     4th  Ed       3.50 
Merrell's  Digest.  -  4.00 

Potter's  Compend  of.  5th  Ed.  i.co 


* 


-X- 


FOR  SELF  EXAMINATION,  "3000  Questions  on  Medical  Subjects. 
Just  Ready.      Price,  10  cents  net. 


CLASSIFIED  LIST  OF  P.  BLAKISTON,  SON  &*  CO.'S  PUBLICATIONS. 


Potter's  Handbook  of.     Third 
Ed.    Clo.  4.00;  Sheep,    -      $5.00 

MEDICAL  JURISPRUDENCE. 
Reese     Medical  Jurisprudence 
&  Toxicology,  3d  Ed  3.00;  Sh  3.50 

MICROSCOPE. 
Beale.     How  10  Work  with.      7.50 

In  Medicine.         -  7.50 

Carpenter.     The  Microscope. 

7th  Ed.  780  Illus.  CI.  6.50  Lea.  7.50 
Lee  Vade  Mecum  of.  2. 1  Ed.  4.00 
MacDonald.     Examination  of 

Water  by.        -        -         -  2.75 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Beale.      Slight  Ailments.  1.25 

Black.     Micro-organisms.  1.50 

Burnet.  Kood  and  Dietaries.  1.75 
Davis.  Textbook  of  Biology.  4.00 
Duckworth.     On  Gout.  -  7.00 

Garrod.     Rheumatism,  etc.      6.00   I 
Gross.     Life  of  J.  Hunter.    Pa.   .75 
Haddon.      Kmbryology.    -         6.00 

Haig.      Uric  Acid.        -        -      

Henry.     Anaemia.    -  .75 

NERVOUS  DISEASES,  Etc. 
Flower.    Atlas  of  Nerves.         3.50 
Bowlby.     Injuries  of.         -        4.50 
Gowers.    Manual  of.     2d  Ed. 

350  Illustrations.     Vol.  1.        3.50   I 
Vol.  2       Nearly  Ready.  

Di.s.  ol  Spinal  Lord        j 

— — —     Diseases  of  Brain.         2.00 

Syphilis   and    the  Ner- 
vous System.         -        -         

Obcrstemer.   Central  Nervous 

System.     ....  6.00    ; 

Omerod.     Manual  of. 
Osier.    Cerebral  Palsies. 
Page.      Injuries  ol  Spine. 

Railway  injuries. 

Thorburn.      surgery    of    the 

Spinal  Cord     -  4.50    ; 

Watson.     Concussions.  1.00 

NURSING. 
Cullingworth.    Manual  oi.       .75 

Monthly    Nursing.  .50 

Domvillc's  Manual.     7th  Ed 
Fullerton.     Obst.  Nursing. 

Nursing   in   Abdominal 

Surg,  and  Dis.  of  Women, 

Humphrey.     Manual  of  1.25 

Luckes.  Hospital  Sisters'.  1.00  | 

Parvin.  Obstetrii  Nursing.  .75 
Starr.  Hygiem  of  the  Nursery.  1. 00 
Temperature  Charts.    -  .50 

:  1   1  fK  5, 
Bar.     Antiseptic  <  Ibstet.  1.75 

Cazcaux  and  Tarnier.     Stu- 
dents d  Plates.  5.00  1 
Davis.     Obstetrical  Chart  .50 
Davis.    Obstetrics.      Illus 
Galabin's  Mantis                       3.00 
Landis.    Compend     1  h  !■■!      1.00 
Rigby.    Obstetrii   Mem  .50  1 
Schult/c    •  '                                  6  co 
Strahan.    T.xtr  1  I  tei  in 
Winckel'h   Text-book.                6.00 

r.\  1  hoi..  IGV   ••   HISTOLOGY 
Blackburn      Auti  p 
iJlodgett.  Dental  Pathology 
Bowlby.     Surgical  Path 
Qibbes.    Prai  tu  al.  -  1.75 

Gilliam.  a.oo 

Stirling's   T.  .    tii  al.  -  4.00 

vlrcbow,     r    1  -mortems, 

Cellulai    Pathology.      4.00 

Wynter  &  Wethcrcd.   Path.  4.00 

ill  "> 
Beaslcy's  Druggi  is"  Kec'ts,    1  ■•; 

Formulary.  a. as 

. 
Mackenzie.    Phar.  of  Throat 


Merrell's  Digest.  -  -  $».c© 
Proctor.  Practical  Pharm.  4.50 
Robinson.  Latin  Grammarof.  2.00 
Stewart's  Compend.  3d  Ed.  1.00 
Tuson.     Veterinary  Pharm.      2.50 

PHYSICAL  DIAGNOSIS. 
Fenwick's  Student's  Guide.     2.25 
Tyson's  Manual.       -         -  1.25 

PHYSIOLOGY. 
Brubaker's  Compend.     Illus- 
trated.    6th  Ed.      -        -  1. 00 
Kirkes'   12th   Ed.     (Author's 

Ed.1  Cloth,  4.00;   Sheep,  5.00 

Landois'   Text-book.  345  Illus- 
trations. 41I1  Ed.  CI.  7.00;  Sh.  8.00 
Sanderson's  Laboratory  B'k.  5.00 
Sterling.     Practical  Phys.         2.25 
Tyson's  Cell  Doctrine.       -       2.00 
Yeo's  Manual.  321  Illustrations 
5th  Ed     Cloth,  3.00;  Sheep,  3.50 
POISONS. 
Aitken.    The  Ptomaines,  etc.    1.25 
Black.     Formation  of.        -         1  50 
Reese.     Toxicology.     3d  Ed.   3.00 
Tanner.     Memoranda  of.  .75 

PRACTICE. 
Beale.     Slight  Ailments.  1.25 

Charteris,  Guide  to.         -  3.00 

Fagge's  Practice.  2  Vols.  8.00 
Fowler's  1'ictionary  of.  -  5.00 
Hughes.  Compend  of.  2  Pts.  2.00 

Physicians'  Edition. 

1  Vol.  Morocco,  Gilt  edge.  2.50 
Roberts.  Text-book,  bth  Ed.  5.50 
Taylor's  Manual  of.     -  4  00 

PRESCRIPTION  BOOKS. 
Beasley's  3000  Prescriptions.    2.25 


THERAPEUTICS. 
Allen,  Harlan,  Harte,  Van 

Harlingen.     Local  Thera.  

Biddle.  nth  Ed.  CI.  4.25;  Sb  £5.00 
Burnet.  Food  and  Dietaries.  1.75 
-  Field.  Cathartics  and  Emetics.  1.75 
Headland.  Action  of  Med.  3.00 
Jaworski.  Carlsbad  Salts.  a.oo 
Mays.     Therap.  Forces.  1.25 

— — —  Theine  50 

Napheys'  Medical.  -        

Surgical.  -         -         

Ott.     Action  of  Medicines.         2.00 
Potter's  Compend.     5th  Ed.     1.00 

.Handbook  of.  4.00  ;  Sh.  5.00 

Waring's  Practical.    4th  Ed.  3.00 

THROAT  AND  NOSE. 
Cohen.      Throat  and  Voice.         .50 
Greenhow.     Bronchitis.  1.25 

Hutchinson.   Nose  &  Throat 
McBiide.      Clinical   Manual, 

Colored  Plates,        -        -         7.00 
Mackenzie.  Throat  and  Nose. 

2  vols.       -  

Pharmacopoeia.    -  1.25 

Murrell.     Bronchitis.         -        3  50 
Potter.     Stammering,  etc 
Woakes.   Post-Nasal  Catarrh.  1.50 
Deafness, Giddiness,  etc. 

TRANSACTIONS   AND 
REPORTS. 

Penna.  Hospital  Reports. 
Power  and  Holmes'  Reports 
Trans.  College  of  Physicians 

Ainer.  Surg.  Assoc. 

Assoc.  Amer.  Phys, 


Receipt  Book. 
Formulary. 


2.25 
2.25 
1. 00 


Pereira's  Pocket-book. 
Wythe's  Dose  and  Symptom 

Book.    17th  Ed,     -        -        1. 00 
SKIN  AND  HAIR. 
Anderson's  'Text-Book.  4.50 

Bulkley.    The  Skin.         -  .50 

Crocker.    Dis.  of  Skin.    Illus.  

Van    Harlingen.      Diagnosis 

and  Tre.iii.  enl  of  Skin  1  >is. 

1  latcs  .n   Engravings.       2.50 

si  [MULANTS  &  NARCOTICS. 

Lizars.     ( In 'Tobacco.      -  .50 

Miller.      On  AK  obol  .50 

Parrish.     Inebriety.         -  1.25 

SURGERY    AND   SURGICAL 

D1SEAS1  S. 
Caird  and  Cathcart.     Surgi- 

l|  Handbook,  Leather,  2.50 

Dulles  Ol  ics. 

Heath's  Minor.    <(ili  Ed. 


1  s   .M  inor.    t)tn  r.u. 
I  '1      ue*  of  Jaws. 

•  s  mi  Jaws. 


•75 

2. OO 
4-50 
I. OO 

I    I 
5.00 


Horwitz.  t  ompend,  4th  Ed 
Jacobson.     » rperatl 
Mouliin.    Complete  Text- 

1 k,497  Illus 

Subscription  only.  Colored 

/,  (  I.  7  00;  Sh.  8.00 
kus.  -       -        9. co 

Porter's    Surgeon's    1'ocket- 

book.  -       -    Leathei   2.25 

Sun  tii .     Abdominal  Surg.        7.00 
Swam.     Surg 

Wiilsliam.     Practical  Surg.    300 
Watson's  Amputations.  5  50 

11     HNOLOGK   \i    1  • 
Cktmittty. 
Camei' 

&oap  a. 25 

Gardner.     Brewing,  etc,  1.7s 

Oardnr'  Id,  etc.      1.75 

.  1  Ig,      1   7S 

Groves  and  ml- 

I 
Mills  011  Fu< 
Overman.     M 


I  »5 

I.2J 

3  5° 
3.00 
3-5° 


U K  1 N  E  &  U  R I N  A  R  Y  ORGANS. 
Acton.     Repro.  Organs.  2.00 

Beale.     Urin.  &  Renal  Dis.      1.75 

Urin.  Deposits.     Plates.  2.00 

Holland.  The  Urine, Mill 

Common  H  is  ins.    4th  Ed.    1.00 
Legg.     On  Urine.     -  .75 

Marshall  and  Smith.  Urine.  1.00 
Ralfe.  Kidney  and  Uri.  Org.  2.75 
Schnee.     Diabetes.  -        2.00 

Thompson.  Urinary  Organs.    3.50 

Surg,  of  Urin 

Calculous  Dis.  3d.  Ed.    1 .00 

Lithotomy.     -        -  3.50 

Prostate.      6th  Fd.  2.00 

Thornton.  Surg,  of  Kidney.  1.75 
Tyson.  Exam.  of  Urine.  1.50 
Van  Niiys.    Urine  Analyst! 

VI  Ml  REAL  DIS1  n 

Hill  and  Cooper's  Manual.    1  00 

VI  IT  RINARY. 

Armatage.     Vet.  Rem.  1.25 

Ballon.     An.it.  and  Phys.  1.0 

Tuson.     V.  1    I'll. urn.  2.50 

VIS1  1  ING   LISTS 

Lindsay     and     Blakiston's 
lai    Edition 

1    • 

Perpetual  Ed.     1.25  to  1.50 

Monthly  Ed. 

Plain,  .7 . .    in'  I 

W  \  I  I  k 
Blair.  Potable  W  si 
Fox.     W  ater.  Air,  I  too 

Frankland. 

an  A  Beam, 

MacDonald.    I 

worn  n.  Disi  isi  -  "i . 

Byford's   Text  hook.   4th  I  ■ 

Uterus.   -  • 

Edis.    Sterility.  1  7s 

Lewcrs.    Dis.  of  Women  «, 

Morris. 

Tilt.     < 

Wmckcl,  bj  Pan        '  I 

Q 


From  PROF.  J.  M.  PaCOsTA. 

"  I  find  it  an  excellent  ivork,  doing  credit  to  the  learning  and  discrimination  of  the  author.' 


A  New  Medical  Dictionary. 


Small   8vo,  Half  Morocco,  as  above,  with 

Thumb  Index, $4.25 

Plain  Dark  Leather,  without  Thumb  Index,    3.25 


A  compact,  concise  Vocabulary,  including 
all  the  Words  and  Phrases  used  in  medicine, 
with  their  proper  Pronunciation  and  Defini- 
tions. 

BASED  ON  RECENT  MEDICAL 
LITERATURE. 

ItY 

GEORGE  M.  GOULD,  A.B.,  M.D., 

Ophthalmic  Surgeon  to  the  Philadelphia  Hospital,  Clinical 
Chit/  Ophthalmological  Dept.   German  Hos- 
pital, Philadelphia. 

It  is  not  a  mere  compilation  from  other 
dictionaries.  The  definitions  have  been 
made  by  the  aid  of  the  most  recent  stan- 
dard text-books  in  the  various  branches  of 
medicine.     It  includes 


SEVERAL  THOUSAND  NEW  WORDS  NOT  CONTAINED  IN 
ANY   SIMILAR  WORK. 

IT  CONTAINS  TABLES  of  the  ABBREVIATIONS  used  in  Medicine,  of  the 
ARTERIES,  of  the  BACILLI,  giving  the  Name,  Habitat,  Characteristics,  etc.;  of  GAN- 
GLIA, LEUCOMAINES,  MICROCOCCI,  MUSCLES,  NERVES,  PLEXUSES, 
PTOMAINES,  with  the  Name,  Formula,  Physiological  Action,  etc. ;  and  the  COMPARI- 
SON OF  THERMOMETERS,  of  all  the  most  used  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 
of  the  world,  of  the  MINERAL  SPRINGS  OF  THE  U.  S.,  VITAL  STATISTICS, 
etc.     Much  of  the  material  thus  classified  is  not  obtainable  by  English  readers  in  any  other  work. 

OPINIONS  OF  PROMINENT  MEDICAL  PAPERS. 

"  One  pleasing  feature  of  the  book  is  that  the  reader  can  almost  invariably 
find  the  definition  under  the  word  he  looks  for,  without  being  referred  from 
one  place  to  another,  as  is  too  commonly  the  case  in  medical  dictionaries. 
The  tables  of  the  bacilli,  micrococci,  leucomaines  and  ptomaines  are  excellent, 
and  contain  a  large  amount  of  information  in  a  limited  space.  The  anatomical 
tables  are  also  concise  and  clear.  .  .  .  We  should  unhesitatingly  recom- 
mend this  dictionary  to  our  readers,  feeling  sure  that  it  will  prove  of  much 
value  to  them." — A?nerican  Journal  of  Medical Science,  Sept.  i8po. 

"  As  a  handy,  concise  and  accurate,  and  complete  medical  dictionary  it 
decidedly  claims  a  very  high  place  among  works  of  this  description.  In  fact, 
taking  handiness  and  cheapness  into  account,  we  certainly  think  this  is  the 
general  practitioner's  model  dictionary,  and  we  cordially  recommend  it  to  our 
readers.  The  definitions  are  for  the  most  part  terse  and  accurate,  and  the 
derivations  up  to  modern  lights." — British  Medical  Journal,  London,  Sept.  i8po. 
May  be  obtained  through  all  Booksellers.     Sample  pages  free. 


P.  BLAKISTON,  SON  &  CO.'S 
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ACTON.  The  Functions  and  Disorders  of  the  Reproductive  Organs  in  Childhood, 
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AITKEN.  Animal  Alkaloids,  the  Ptomaines,  Leucomaines  and  Extractives  in 
their  Pathological  Relations.  By  William  Aitken,  m.d.,  f.r.s.,  Prof,  of  Path, 
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ALLEN,  HARLAN.  HARTE,  VAN  HARLINGEN.  Local  Therapeutics. 
A  Handbook  of  Local  Therapeutics,  being  a  practical  description  of  all  those 
agents  used  in  the  local  treatment  of  disease,  such  as  Ointments,  Plasters, 
Powders,  Lotions,  Inhalations,  Suppositories,  Bougies,  Tampons,  etc.,  and  the 
proper  methods  of  preparing  and  applying  them.  By  Harrison  Allen,  m.d.. 
Emeritus  Professor  of  Physiology  in  the  University  of  Penna. ;  Laryngologist  to 
the  Rush  Hospital  for  Consumption  ;  late  Surgeon  to  the  Philadelphia  and  St. 
Joseph's  Hospitals.  George  C.  Harlan,  m.d.,  late  Professor  of  Diseases  of  the 
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sylvania Hospital.  Richard  H.  Harte,  m.d.,  Demonstrator  of  Osteology, 
University  of  Pennsylvania  ;  Assistant  Surgeon,  University  Hospital,  and  Arthur 
Van  Harlingen,  m.d.,  Professor  of  Diseases  of  the  Skin  in  the  Philadelphia 
Polyclinic  and  College  for  Graduates  in  Medicine  ;  late  Clinical  Lecturer  on 
Dermatology  in  Jefferson  Medical  College;  Dermatologist  to  the  Howard  Hos- 
pital. In  One  Handsome  Compact  Volume.     Nearly  Ready. 

ALLEN.    Commercial  Organic  Analysis.    A  Treatise  on  the  Modes  of  Assaying 
the  Various  Organic  Chemicals  and  Products  employed  in  the  Arts,  Manufactures, 
Medicine,  etc.,  with  Concise  Methods  for  the  Detection  of  Impurities,  Adultera- 
tions, etc.     Second  Edition.    Revised  and  Enlarged.    By  Alfred  Allen,  f.c.s. 
Vol.  I.  Alcohols,  Ethers,  Vegetable  Acids.  Starch,  etc.  Out  of  Print. 

Vol.  II.  Fixed  Oils  and    Fats,  Hydrocarbons  and  Mineral  Oils,  Phenols  and 
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ANDERSON.  A  Treatise  on  8kin  Diseases.  With  special  reference  to  Diagnosis 
and  Treatment,  and  including  an  Analysis  of  ii.ooo  consecutive  cases.  By  T. 
McCall  ANDERSON,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Clinical  Medicine,  University  of  Glasgow. 
With  several  Full-page  Plates,  two  of  which  are  Colored  Lithographs,  and  nu- 
merous Wood  Engravings.     Octavo.     650  pages.       Cloth,  $4.50;  Leather,  #5.50 

ARCHIVES  OF  SURGERY.  Edited  by  Jonathan  Hutchinson,  F.R.S.  Colored 
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ARLT.  Diseases  of  the  Eye.  Clinical  Studiei  on  I  diseases  of  the  Eye.    Including  the 

injunctiva,  ( !ornea  and  S<  ierotic,  Iris  and  Ciliary  Body.     B)  1  )x.  Fbrd.  Ki  1  n  k 

von  Aklt.  University  of  Vienna.    Authorised  Translation  by  Lyman  Ware, 

M  i>  ,    Surgeon     to    the    Illinois    Charitable    Eye   and    Ear    Infirm. u  v.   Chicago. 

Illustrated.     Svo.  (loth.  52.50 

ARMATAGE.     The   Veterinarian's    Pocket    Remembrancer:    being    Concise 
Directions  for  the  Treatment  of  Urgent  or  Rare  Cases,  embracing  Semeiol 
Diagnosis,  Prognosis,  Surgery,  Therapeutics,  Toxicology,  Detection  o(  Poisona 
in    their  appropriate  tests,  Hygiene,  etc,     By  George    Armatagr,  m.r.c.v.s. 
ond  Edition,    321110. 

B 


6  P.   BLAKISTON,  SON  6-  CO.'S 

BALLOU.  Veterinary  Anatomy  and  Physiology.  By  Wm.  R.  Ballou,  m.d.. 
Prof,  of  Equine  Anatomy,  New  York  College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons,  Physician 
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BAR.  Antiseptic  Midwifery.  The  Principles  of  Antiseptic  Methods  Applied  to 
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Maternity  Hospital,  Paris.  Authorized  Translation  by  Henry  D.  Fry,  m.d., 
with  an  Appendix  by  the  author.     Octavo.  Cloth,  $1.75 

BARRETT.  Dental  Surgery  for  General  Practitioners  and  Students  of  Medicine 
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Edition.     Illustrated      Practical  Series.     [See  page  19.]  Cloth,  $1.25 

BARTLEY.  Medical  Chemistry.  Second  Edition.  A  Text-book  for  Medical  and 
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Toxicology  at  the  Long  Island  College  Hospital ;  President  of  the  American 
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Revised  and  enlarged.  With  62  Illustrations.  Glossary  and  Complete  Index. 
423  pages.     i2mo.  Cloth,  $2.50 

BEALE.  On  Slight  Ailments ;  their  Nature  and  Treatment.  By  Lionel  S.  Beale, 
m.d.,  f.r.s.,  Professor  of  Practice,  King's  Medical  College,  London.  Second 
Edition.     Enlarged  and  Illustrated.     8vo.  Cloth,  $1.25 

Urinary  and  Renal  Diseases  and  Calculous  Disorders.     Hints  on  Diagnosis 
and  Treatment.     Demi-8vo.     356  pages.  Cloth,  $1.75 

The  Use  of  the  Microscope  in  Practical  Medicine.    For  Students  and 
Practitioners,  with  full  directions  for  examining  the  various  secretions,  etc., 
in   the  Microscope.     Fourth  Edition.     500  Illustrations.     8vo.     Cloth,  $7.50 
How  to  Work  with  the  Microscope.     A  Complete  Manual  of  Microscopical 
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investigation,   with    directions    for    examining   objects   under  the    highest 
powers,  and  for  taking  photographs  of  microscopic  objects.     Fifth  Edition. 
Containing  over  400  Illustrations,  many  of  them  colored.     8vo.    Cloth,  $7.50 
One  Hundred  Urinary  Deposits,  on  eight  sheets,  for  the  Hospital,  Labora- 
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BEASLEY'S  Book  of  Prescriptions.     Containing  over  3100  Prescriptions,  collected 
from  the   Practice   of  the   most  Eminent  Physicians  and   Surgeons — English, 
French  and  American  ;  a  Compendious  History  of  the  Materia  Medica,  Lists  of 
the  Doses  of  all  Officinal  and  Established  Preparations,  and  an  Index  of  Diseases 
and  their  Remedies.     By  Henry  Beasley.     Seventh  Edition.  Cloth,  $2.25 
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BIDDLE'S  Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics.   Eleventh  Edition.    For  the  Use  of 
Students  and  Physicians..    By  Prof.  John  B.  Biddle,  m.d.,  Professor  of  Materia 
Medica  in  Jefferson  Medical  College,  Philadelphia.     The  Eleventh  Edition,  thor- 
oughly revised,  and  in  many  parts  rewritten,  by  his  son,  Clement  Biddle,  m.d., 
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BIGELOW.    Plain  Talks  on  Medical  Electricity  and  Batteries,  with  a  Thera- 
peutic Index  and  a  Glossary.     Prepared  for  Practitioners  and  Students  of  Medi- 
cine.    By   Horatio   R.  Bigelow,  m.d.,  Fellow  of  the  British  Gynaecological 
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BLACK.     Micro-Organisms.     The  Formation  of  Poisons.     A  Biological  study  of 
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BLACKBURN.  Autopsies.  A  Manual  of  Autopsies,  Designed  for  the  use  of  Hos- 
pitals for  the  Insane  and  other  Public  Institutions.  By  I.  W.  BLACKBURN,  m.d., 
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ten  Full-page  Plates  and  four  other  Illustrations.     i2mo.       •  Cloth,  51 .25 

BLAIR.  Potable  Waters.  The  Organic  Analysis  of.  By  J.  A.  Blair,  m.  1.  . 
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BLODGETT'S  Dental  Pathology.  By  Albert  N.  Blodgett,  m.d.,  Late  Prof,  of 
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BLOXAM.  Chemistry,  Inorganic  and  Organic.  With  Experiments.  By 
Charles  L.  Bloxam.  Edited  by  J.  M.  Thompson,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in 
King's  College,  London,  and  A.  G.  Bloxam,  Dem.  of  Chem.,  Royal  Agricultural 
College,  Cirencester.  Seventh  Edition.  Revised  and  Enlarged.  With  281 
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BOWLBY.  Injuries  and  Diseases  of  the  Nerves,  and  their  surgical  treatment. 
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mew's Hospital.  Illus.  by  4  Colored  and  20  Full-page  Plates.  8vo.  Cloth,  54.50 
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BOWMAN.  Practical  Chemistry,  including  analysis,  with  about  100  Illustrations. 
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Professor  of  Chemistry,  King's  College,  London.  Cloth,  52.00 

BRUBAKER.  Physiology.  A  Compend  of  Physiology,  specially  adapted  for  the 
use  of  Students  and  Physicians.  By  A.  P.  Brubaker,  m.d.,  Demonstrator  of 
Physiology  at  Jefferson  Medical  College,  Prof,  of  Physiology,  Penn'a  College  of 
Dental  Surgery,  Philadelphia.  Sixth  Edition.  Revised,  Enlarged  and  Illus- 
trated.   No.  4,? Quiz- Compend  Series ?    l2ino.    Cloth,  51.00;  Interleaved,  51 .25 

BUCKNILL  AND  TUKE'S  Manual  of  Psychological  Medicine :  containing 
the  Lunacy  Laws,  the  Nosology,  yEtiology,  Statistics,  Description,  Diagnosis, 
Pathology  (including  morbid  Histology)  and  Treatment  of  Insanity.  By  John 
Charles  Bucknill,  m.d.,  f.r.s.,  and  Daniel  Hack  Turk,  m.d.,  p.r.cf. 
Fourth  Edition.    Numerous  illustrations.     8vo.  Cloth,  58.00 

BULKLEY.  The  Skin  in  Health  and  Disease.  By  L.  Duncan  IUi.ki.ky,  m.d., 
Attending  Physician  at  the  New  York  Hospital.     Illustrated.  Cloth,  .50 

BUXTON.  On  Anaesthetics.  A  Manual.  By  Dudley  Wilmot  Buxton,  m.r.c.s., 
M.R.C.P.,  Ass't  to  Prof,  of  Med.,  and  Administrator  of  Anaesthetics,  University 
College  Hospital,  London.    Practical  Series.     [See page  /p.]  >th,  5 1.25 

BURNET.  Foods  and  Dietaries.  A  Manual  of  Clinical  Dirt.  tics.  By  R.  W, 
BURNET,  M.D.,  M.R.C.P.,  Physician  to  the  Great  Northern  Central  Hospital. 
General  Contents — Diet  in  Derangements  of  the  Digestive,  Nervous  and  Res- 
piratory Organs;  in  Gout,  Rheumatism,  Anaemia,  Kevers,  Obesity,  etc.  ;  in  Dis- 
eases of  Children,  Alcoholism,  etc.  With  Appendix  on  Predigi  sted  Foods  and 
Invalid  Cookery.  Full  directions  as  to  hours  of  taking  nourishment,  quantity, 
etc.,  are  given.     i2mo.  Cloth,  %\  75 

BURNETT.  Hearing,  and  How  to  Keep  It.  By  Chas.  H.  Burnett,  m.d..  Prof. 
of  Diseases  of  the  Ear  at  the  Philadelphia  Polyclinic.     Illustrated.        Cloth.  .50 

BYFORD.  Diseases  of  Women.  The  Practice  of  Medicine  and  Surgery,  as 
applied  to  the  Diseases  and  Accidents  Incident  to  Women.  ByW.  II.  Bytord, 
a.m.,  m.d.,  Professor  of  ( lynaecology  in  Rush  Medii  al  <  lollege  and  of  ( ibstetj  i<  a 
in  the  Woman's  Medical  College;  Surgeon  to  the  Woman's  Hospital;  Ex-Presi- 
dent American  Gynaecological  E  tc,  and  Henry  T.  Byford,  m.d.,  Sur- 
in  to  the  Woman's  Hospital  of  Chicago;  Gynaecologist  to  St.  Luke's  Hos- 
pital; President  Chicago  Gynaecological  Society,  etc.  Fourth  Edition.  Revised. 
Rewritten  and  Enlarged.  With  306  Illustrations,  over  ICO  of  which  aie  original. 
OCTAVO.      8  ("loth,  55-00 ;    Leather,  56.OO 

On  the  Uterus.    Chronic  Inflammation  and  Displacement.  Cloth,  |i 

CAIRD  and  CATHCART.  Surgical  Handbook  for  the  use  of  Practitioner!  and 
student  s,  By  F.  Mitchell  (  ajrd,  mi...  p.r.cs.,  and  C.  W  ilkbb  Ca  wcar  r, 
M.B.,  f.r.c.s.,  Ass'i  Surgeons  Royal  infirmary.  With  over  200  Illustrations, 
321110.    400  pages.     Po(  ket  size.  Leathei  1 


8  P.  BLAKISTON,  SON  S-  CO.'S 

CAMERON.  Oils  and  Varnishes.  A  Practical  Handbook,  by  James  Cameron, 
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Soap  and  Candles.  A  New  Handbook  for  Manufacturers,  Chemists,  Ana- 
lysts, etc.  Compiled  from  all  reliable  and  recent  sources.  54  Illustrations. 
i2mo.  Cloth,  $2.25 

CARPENTER.  The  Microscope  and  Its  Revelations.  By  W.  B.  Carpenter. 
M.D.,  f.r.s.  Seventh  Edition.  By  Rev.  Dr.  Dollinger,  f.  r.  s.  Revised  and 
Enlarged,  with  800  Illustrations  and  many  Lithographs.     Octavo.     1 100  Pages. 

Cloth,  $6.50;  Sheep,  $7.50 

CAZEATJX  and  TARNIER'S  Midwifery.  With  Appendix,  by  Munde.  Eighth 
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Illustrations.  The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Obstetrics,  including  the  Diseases 
of  Pregnancy  and  Parturition,  Obstetrical  Operations,  etc.  By  P.  Cazeaux, 
Member  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Medicine,  Adjunct  Professor  in  the  Faculty 
of  Medicine  in  Paris.  Remodeled  and  rearranged,  with  revisions  and  additions, 
by  S.  Tarnier,  m.d.,  Professor  of  Obstetrics  and  Diseases  of  Women  and 
Children  in  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  of  Paris.  Eighth  American,  from  the 
Eighth  French  and  First  Italian  Edition.  Edited  and  Enlarged  by  Robert 
J.  Hess,  m.d.,  Physician  to  the  Northern  Dispensary,  Phila.,  etc.,  with  an  Ap- 
pendix by  Paul  F.  Munde,  m.d.,  Professor  of  Gynaecology  at  the  New  York 
Polyclinic,  and  at  Dartmouth  College ;  Vice-President  American  Gynaecological 
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CHARTERIS.  Practice  of  Medicine.  The  Student's  Guide.  By  M.  Charteris, 
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Sixth  Edition,  with  Therapeutical  Index  and  many  Illustrations.         Cloth,  $3.00 

CLEVELAND'S  Pocket  Dictionary.  A  Pronouncing  Medical  Lexicon,  containing 
correct  Pronunciation  and  Definition  of  terms  used  in  medicine  and  the  col- 
lateral sciences,  abbreviations  used  in  prescriptions,  list  of  poisons,  their  anti- 
dotes, etc.  By  C.  H.  Cleveland,  m.d.  Thirty-third  Edition.  Very  small 
pocket  size.  Cloth,  .75;  Tucks  with  Pocket,  $1.00 

COHEN.  The  Throat  and  Voice.  By  J.  Solis-Cohen,  m.d.  Illus.  nmo.    Cloth,  .50 

COLLIE,  On  Fevers.  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Fevers,  Their  History,  Etiology, 
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Lond.     With  Colored  Plates.    Practical  Series.     See  Page  ig.  Cloth,  $2.50 

CROCKER.  Diseases  of  the  Skin.  Their  Description,  Pathology,  Diagnosis  and 
Treatment.  By  H.  Radcliffe  Crocker,  m.d.,  Physician  to  the  Dept.  of  Skin 
Dis.  University  College  Hospital,  London.  With  Illustrations.  Second  Edition. 
Enlarged.     In  Press. 

CTJLLINGWORTH.   A  Manual  of  Nursing,  Medical  and  Surgical.    By  Charles 

J.  Cullingworth,    m.d.,   Physician  to  St.  Thomas'  Hospital,  London.     Third 

Revised  Edition.     With  18  Illustrations.     i2mo.  Cloth,  .75 

A  Manual  for  Monthly  Nurses.    Third  Edition.    321110.  Cloth,  .50 

DAVTS.  Biology.  An  Elementary  Treatise.  By  J.  R.  Ainsworth  Davis,  of 
University  College,  Aberystwyth,  Wales.   Thoroughly  Illustrated.    i2mo.      #4.00 

DAVIS.     A  Manual  of  Obstetrics.     Being  a  complete  manual  for  Physicians  and 

Students.     By  Edward  P.  Davis,  m.d.,  Demonstrator  of  Obstetrics,  Jefferson 

Medical   College ;    Physician   to   the  Philadelphia  Hospital ;    Editor  American 

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DAY.  On  Headaches.  The  Nature,  Causes  and  Treatment  of  Headaches.  By 
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DERMATOLOGY,  Journal  of.  Edited  by  Malcolm  Morris,  m.r.c.s.  London, 
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MEDICAL  AND  SCIENTIFIC  PUBLIC  A  TIONS. 9 

DOMVILLE.  Manual  for  Nurses  and  others  e;  igaged  in  attending  to  the  sick.  By 
Ed.  J.  DOMVILLE,  M.D.  7th  Edition.  Revised.  With  Recipes  for  S^ck-room 
Cookery,  etc.     121110.  Cloth,  .75 

DUCKWORTH.  On  Gout.  Illustrated.  A  treatise  on  Gout.  By  Sir  Uvce 
DUCKWORTH,  m.d.  (Edin.),  P.R.C.P.,  Physician  to,  and  Lecturer  on  Clinical 
Medicine  at,  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital,  London.  With  Chromo-liihographs 
and  Engravings.     Octavo.  Cloth,  $7.00 

DULLES.  What  to  Do  First,  In  Accidents  and  Poisoning.  By  C.  W.  Dulles,  m!d. 
Third  Edition,  Enlarged,  with  new  Illustrations.  Cloth.  .75 

EDIS.  Sterility  in  Women.  By  A.  W.  Edis,  m.d.,  f.k.C.P.,  late  President  British 
( gynaecological  Society;  Senior  Physician,  Chelsea  Hospital  for  Women;  Physician 
to' British  Lying-in  Hospital,  etc.  '  Illustrated.     8vo.  Cloth,  $1.75 

FAGGE.    The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Medicine.    By  C.  Hilton  Fagge,  m.d., 

f.r.c.p.,  f  k.m.c.s.,  Examiner  in  Medicine,  University  of  London;  Physician  to, 
and  Lecturer  on  Pathology  in,  Guy's  Hospital ;  Senior  Physician  to  Evelina  Hos- 
pital for  Sick*  Children,  etc.  Arranged  for  the  press  by  Philip  H.  I've  Smith, 
m.d.,  Lect.  on  Medicine  in  Guy's  Hospital.  Including  a  section  on  Cutaneous 
Affections,  by  the  Editor;  Chapter  on  Cardiac  Diseases,  by  Samuel  Wilkes,  m.d., 
F.R.s.,and  Complete  Indexes  by  Robert  Edmund  Carrington.  2  vols.  Royal 
8vo.  Cloth,  $8.00;    Leather,  $10.00;    Half  Russia,  $12.00. 

FENWICK.  Student's  Guide  to  Physical  Diagnosis.  By  Saul.  Fenwick,  m.d .. 
M.R.C.P.,  Physician  to  the  London  Hospital.  Seventh  Edition.  117  Illustrations. 
1  21110.  Cloth,  $2.25 

FIELD.  Evacuant  Medication— Cathartics  and  Emetics.  By  Henry  M.  Field, 
m.d.,  Professor  of  Therapeutics,  Dartmouth  Medical  College,  Corporate  Mem- 
ber Gynaecological  Society  of  Boston,  etc.     i2mo.     288  pp.  Cloth,  $1.75 

FILLEBROWN.  A  Text-Book  of  Operative  Dentistry.  Written  by  invitation 
of  the  National  Association  of  Dental  Faculties.  By  THOMAS  FlLLEBROWN,  M.D., 
D.M.D.,  Professor  of  Operative  Dentistry  in  the  Dental  School  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity; Member  of  the  American  Dental  Assoc,  etc.    Illus.    8vo.      Clo.,  $2.50 

FLAGG.    Plastics  and  Plastic  Fillings,  as  pertaining  to  the  filling  of  all  Cavities 
'.1  Decay  in  Teeth  below  medium  in  structure,  and  to  difficult  and  inaccessible 
cavities  m  teeth  of  all  grades  of  structure.    By  J.  Foster  Flagg,  d.o.S.,  Profj 
of  Dental  Pathology  in  Philadelphia  Dental  College.    Fourth  Revised  Edition. 
With  many  Illustrations.    8vo.  Cloth,  $4. 00 

FLOWER'S  Diagrams  of  the  Nerves  of  the   Human    Body.    Exhibiting  thtir 
igin,  Divisions  and  Connections,  with  their  Distribution  to  the  various  Regions 
of  the  Cutaneous  Surface  and  to  .ill  the  Muscles.     By  William  H.  Flower, 
k.k.c.s.,  p.r.s.,  Hunterian  Professor  of  Comparative  Anatomy,  and  atoi 

of  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons.  Third  Edition!  thoroughl) 
revised.    With  si*  Large  Folio  Maps  or  Diagrams.    4to.  Cloth,  53.50 

FLUCKIGER.     The    Cinchona    Barks   Pharm  tically    Considered.       Bj 

Profes  01  Friedri  h  Fi  1  k.igi  k,  of  Strasburg.  Translated  by  Frederick  d. 
Power,  ph.d.    With  8  Lithographic  Plates,     Royal  octavo.  Cloth,  51. 5c 

FOWLER'S  Dictionary  of  Practical  Medicine.     By  Vm 

<  lopedia  of  Medi<  ine.    Edited  by  Jambs  Kingston  Fowli  r,  u.a.,  m  0.,  p.h 
Senior  Asst.  Physi<  ian  to,  and   I  in  Pathological  Anatomy  at,  the  Mid- 

dlesex Hospital  and  the  Hospital  for  Consumption  and 
Brompton,  London.    Svo.  Cloth,  55.00;  Mali  M 

FOX.  Water,  Air  and  Food.  Sanitary  Examinations  ol  Water,  Ail  and  Food. 
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10  P.  BLAK1STON,  SON  &•  CO.'S 

FOX   AND    GOULD.     Compend  on  Diseases  of   the  Eye  and  Refraction, 

including  Treatment  and  Surgery.  By  L.Webster  Fox,  m.d.,  Chief  Clinical 
Assistant,  Ophthalmological  Department,  Jefferson  Medical  College  Hospital ; 
Ophthalmic  Surgeon,  Germantown  Hospital,  Philadelphia  ;  late  Clinical  Assistant 
at  Moorfields,  London,  England,  etc.,  and  Geo.  M.  Gould,  m.d.  Second  Edition. 
Enlarged.  71  Illustrations  and  39  Formulae.  Being  No.  8,  ?  Quiz-  Compend  ? 
Series.  Cloth,  $1.00.      Interleaved  for  the  addition  of  notes,  #1.25 

FRANKLAND'S  Water  Analysis.  For  Sanitary'  Purposes,  with  Hints  for  the  In- 
terpretation of  Results.     By  E.  Frankland,  m.d.,  f.r.s.     Illustrated.     121110. 

Cloth,  $1.00 

FULLERTON.     Obstetrical  Nursing.     A    Handbook    for  Nurses,  Students   and 

Mothers.     By  Anna  M.  Fullerton,  m.d.,  Demonstrator  of  Obstetrics  in  the 

Woman's   Medical    College;     Physician    in    charge   of,    and   Obstetrician    and 

Gynaecologist   to,  the  Woman's  Hospital,   Philadelphia,   etc.     34   Illustrations. 

Second  Edition.     Revised  and  Enlarged.     i2mo.  Cloth,  $1.25 

Nursing  in  Abdominal  Surgery  and  Diseases  of  Women.    Comprising  the 

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Guy's  Hospital,  London.     227  Illustrations.  Cloth,  $3.00;  Leather,  $3.50 

GARDNER.    The  Brewer,  Distiller  and  Wine  Manufacturer.    A  Handbook  for 

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Edited  by  John  Gardner,  f.c.s.     Illustrated.  Cloth,  $1.75 

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sician, West  London  Hospital.     Illustrated.     Octavo.  Cloth,  $6  00 

GIBBES'S  Practical  Histology  and  Pathology.    By  HeneageGibbes.m.b.    i2mo. 

Third  Edition.  Cloth,  $1.75 

GILLIAM'S  Pathology.  The  Essentials  of  Pathology;  a  Handbook  for  Students. 
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Columbus,  O.    With  47  Illustrations.    i2mo.    '  Cloth,  $2.00 

G00DHART  and  STARR'S  Diseases  of  Children.  The  Student's  Guide  to  the 
Diseases  of  Children.  By  J.  F.  Goodhart,  m.d.,  F.R.C.p.,  Physician  to  Evelina 
Hospital  for  Children;  Demonstrator  of  Morbid  Anatomy  at  Guy's  Hospital. 
Second  American  from  the  Third  English  Edition.  Rearranged  and 
Edited,  with  notes  and  additions,  by  Louis  Starr,  m.d.,  Clinical  Professor  of  Dis- 
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GORGAS'S  Dental  Medicine.  A  Manual  of  Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics. 
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Science,  Dental  Surgery  and  Dental  Mechanism  in  the  Dental  Dep.  of  the  Univ. 
of  Maryland.     4th  Edition.     Revised  and  Enlarged.     8vo.  Cloth,  $3.50 

GOULD'S  New  Medical  Dictionary.  Including  all  the  Words  and  Phrases  used 
in  Medicine,  with  their  proper  Pronunciation  and  Definitions,  based  on  Recent 
Medical  Literature.  By  George  M.  Gould,  b.a.,  m.d.,  Ophthalmic  Surgeon  to 
the  Philadelphia  Hospital,  etc.,  With  Tables  of  the  Bacilli,  Micrococci,  Leuco- 
maines,  Ptomaines,  etc.,  of  the  Arteries,  Muscles,  Nerves,  Ganglia  and  Plexuses; 
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MEDICAL  AND  SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  11 

GOWERS,  Manual  of  Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System.  A  Complete  Text-book. 
By  William  R.  Cowers,  m.d.,  Prof.  Clinical  Medicine,  University  College 
London.  Physician  to  National  Hospital  for  the  Paralyzed  and  Epileptic.  Sei  ond 
Edition.  Revised,  Enlarged  and  in  many  parts  rewritten.  With  many  new 
Illustrations.     Two  Volumes.     Octavo. 

Vol.  I.    Diseases  of  the  Nerves  and  Spinal  Cord.    616  pages.       Cloth,  $5  50 

Vol.  II.     Diseases  of   the   Brain    and    Cranial    Nerves:    General  and 

Functional  Diseases.  />'  Ready 

Diagnosis  of  Diseases  of  the  Brain.    8vo.    Second  Ed.    Illus.    Cloth,  52.00 
Diagnosis  of  Diseases  of  the  Spinal  Cord.    4tn  Edition.  Preparing. 

Medical  Ophthalmoscopy.  A  Manual  and  Atlas,  with  Colored  Autotype  and 
Lithographic  Plates  and  Wood  cuts,  comprising  Original  Illustrations  of  the 
changes  of  the  Eye  in  Diseases  of  the  Brain,  Kidney,  etc.  Third  Edition. 
Revised,  with  the  assistance  of  R.  Marcus  GUNN,  k.r.c.s.,  Surgeon,  Royal 
London  Ophthalmic  Hospital,  Moorfields.     Octavo.  Cloth,  55.50 

Syphilis  and  the  Nervous  System.  Being  the  Lettsomian  Lectures  for  1889. 
8vo.  In  I 

GROSS'S  Biography  of  John  Hunter.     John  Hunter  and  His  Pupils.     By  Profes- 
sor S.  D.  Gross,  m.d.     With  a  Portrait.     8vo.  Paper,  .75 

GREENHOW.     Chronic  Bronchitis,  as  connected  with  Gout,  Emphysema,  ai  d 
Diseases  of  the  Heart.     By  E.  H.  Greenhow,  m.d.         Taper,  .75  ;  Cloth, 

GRIFFITHS  Graphic  Clinical  Chart.    Designed  by  J.  P.  Crozer  Griffith, 

m.d.,  Instructor  in  Clinical  Medicine  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.     Printed 
in  three  colors.     Sample  copies  free.  Put  up  in  loose  pa<  kages  oi  50,    .50 

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GROVES  AND  THORP.    Chemical  Technology.    A  new  and  Complete  Work. 
e    Application   of    Chemistry  to   the  Arts  and    Manufactures.     Edited    by 
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umes, with  numerous  illustrations.     Each  volume  sold  separately. 

Vol.  I.  Fuel.  By  Dr.  E.J.  Mills,  k.r.s.,  Professor  of  Chemistry,  Anderson 
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HADDON'S   Embryology.      An    Introduction  to  the  Study  of   Embryology. 
the  Use  of  Students.     By  A.  C.  H addon,  m.a.,  Prof,  of  Zodlogy,  Royal  *  ol 

of  Science,  Dublin,     k/j  Illustrations.  Cloth,  56.00 

HA1G.    Causation  of  Disease  by  Uric  Acid.    A  Contribution  to  the  Pathol 
H1-I1   Arterial     Tension,    Headache,    Epilepsy,   Gout,    Rheumatism,    D 
Bri  •  ug,  m.a.,  m.d.  Otfon.,  p.r.c  p.,  Physician  to 

Metropolitan  Hospital,  London.     Illustrated.     Octavo.  /// 

HALE     On  the  Management  of  Children  in  Health  and  Disease.    A  Book  for 
Mothers.     l'->  AmieM.  Hale, m.d.    New  Enlarged  Edition,    tamo.    Cloth,  .75 

HARE.    Mediastinal  Disease.    The  Pathology,  Clinical  History  and  Diagm 

An  ;  the  Mediastinum  othei  than  those  ol  the   Heart  .^\<\  Aorta,  with 

iving  the  Clinical  Historj  ly  to  which  was 

tie  I  il  of  the  Medi<  al  >1   London 

1  Iarb,  .m.d.  ( l  'niv,  of  Pa.),  Pro!  ieuti(  9  in 

1  Medical  rhila.     Bvo.     Illustrated  by  Six  Plai 

HARLAN.    Eyesight,  and  How  for  it.     By  Gi 

Prof,  ol  Diseas<    ol  the  Eye,  Philadelphia  Polyclinic.     Illustrated.        Cloth,  .50 


12  P.  BLAKISTON,  SON  &*  CO.'S 

HARRIS'S  Principles  and  Practice  of  Dentistry.  Including  Anatomy,  Physi- 
ology, Pathology,  Therapeutics,  Dental  Surgery  and  Mechanism.  By  Chapin  A. 
Harris,  m.d.,  d.d.s.,  late  President  of  the  Baltimore  Dental  College,  author  of 
"  Dictionary  of  Medical  Terminology  and  Dental  Surgery."  Twelfth  Edition. 
Revised  and  Edited  by  Ferdinand  J.  S.  Gorgas,  a.m.,  m.d.,  d.d.s.,  author  of 
"Dental  Medicine;"  Professor  of  the  Principles  of  Dental  Science,  Dental 
Surgery  and  Dental  Mechanism  in  the  University  of  Maryland.  Two  Full-page 
Plates  and  1086  Illustrations.     1225  pages.    8vo.        Cloth,  $7.00;  Leather,  $8.00 

Dictionary  of  Dentistry.  Fifth  Edition,  Revised.  Including  Definitions  of 
such  Words  and  Phrases  of  the  Collateral  Sciences  as  Pertain  to  the  Art  and 
Practice  of  Dentistry.  Fifth  Edition.  Rewritten,  Revised  and  Enlarged. 
By  Ferdinand  J.  S.  Gorgas,  m.d.,  d.d.s.,  Author  of  "Dental  Medicine  ;  " 
Editor  of  Harris's  "Principles  and  Practice  of  Dentistry;"  Professor  of 
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University  of  Maryland.     Octavo.  Cloth,  $5.00;  Leather,  $6.00 

HARTRIDGE.  Refraction.  The  Refraction  of  the  Eye.  A  Manual  for  Students. 
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tholomew's Hospital ;  Ass't  Surgeon  to  the  Royal  Westminster  Ophthalmic  Hos- 
pital, etc.     96  Illustrations  and  Test  Types.     Fifth  Edition.  Cloth,  $1.75 

On  The  Ophthalmoscope.  A  Manual  for  Physicians  and  Students.  With 
Colored  Plates  and  many  Woodcuts.     i2mo.  Cloth,  $1.50 

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HATFIELD.  Diseases  of  Children.  By  Marcus  P.  Hatfield,  Professor  of 
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N0.14,?  Quiz- Compend?  Series.     i2mo.  Cloth,  $1.00 

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HEATH'S  Minor  Surgery  and  Bandaging.  By  Christopher  Heath,  f.r.c.s., 
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Edition.     Revised  and  Enlarged.     With  142  Illustrations.     i2mo.      Cloth,  $2.00 

Practical  Anatomy.  A  Manual  of  Dissections.  Seventh  London  Edition. 
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HENRY.  Anaemia.  A  Practical  Treatise.  By  Fred'k  P.  Henry,  m.d.,  Prof. 
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HIGGENS'  Ophthalmic  Practice.  A  Manual  for  Students  and  Practitioners.  By 
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Series.     See  Page  ig.  Cloth,  $1.75 

HILL  AND  COOPER.  Venereal  Diseases.  The  Student's  Manual  of  Venereal 
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By  Berkeley  Hill,  m.d.,  Professor  of  Clinical  Surgery,  University  College,  and 
Arthur  Cooper,  m.d.,  Late  House  Surgeon  to  the  Lock  Hospital,  London. 
4th  Edition.     i2mo.  Cloth,  $1.00 


MEDICAL  AND  SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICA  TIONS.  13 

HOLDEN'S  Anatomy.  A  Manual  of  the  Dissections  of  the  Human  Body.  By 
Luther  Holuen,  f.r.c.S.  Fifth  Edition.  Carefully  Revised  and  Enlarged. 
Specially  concerning  the  Anatomy  of  the  Nervous  System,  Organs  of  Special 
Sense,  etc.  By  John  LANGTON,  F.R.C.S.,  Surgeon  to,  and  Lecturer  on  Anatomy 
at,  St.  Bartholomews  Hospital.     208  Illustrations.     8vo. 

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Human  Osteology.  Comprising  a  Description  of  the  Bones,  with  Colored 
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scopical Structure  of  Bone  and  its  Development.  Carefully  Revised.  By 
the  Author  and  Prof.  Stewart,  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons'  Museum. 
With  Lithographic  Plates  and  Numerous  Illustrations.  7th  Ed.  Cloth,  56.00 
Landmarks.     Medical  and  Surgical.     4th  Edition.     8vo.  Cloth,  $1.25 

HOLLAND.  The  Urine,  the  Common  Poisons  and  the  Milk.  Memoranda,  Chem- 
ical and  Microscopical,  for  Laboratory  Use.  By  J.  W.  Holland,  m.d.,  Professor 
of  Medical  Chemistry  and  Toxicology  in  Jefferson  Medical  College,  of  Philadel- 
phia. Fourth  Edition.  Revised  and  Enlarged.  Illustrated  and  Interleaved. 
i2mo.  Cloth,  51.00 

HORWITZ'S  Compend  of  Surgery,  including  Minor  Surgery,  Amputations,  Frac- 
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Differential  Diagnosis  and  Treatment.  By  Orville  Horwitz,  b.s.,  m.d.,  Dem- 
onstrator of  Anatomy,  Jefferson  Medical  College;  Chief,  Out-Patient  Surgical 
Department,  Jefferson  Medical  College  Hospital.  Third  Edition.  Very  much 
Enlarged  and  Rearranged.  91  Illustrations  and  77  Formulae.  i2mo.  No.g  fQui~- 
Compendt  Series.  Cloth,  51.00.     Interleaved  for  the  addition  of  notes,  51.25 

HTJFELAND.  Long  Life.  Art  of  Prolonging  Life.  By  C.  W.  Hufeland. 
Edited  by  Erasmus  Wilson,  m.d.     i2mo.  Cloth,  51.00 

HUGHES.  Compend  of  the  Practice  of  Medicine.  Fourth  Edition.  Revised  and 
Enlarged.  By  DANIEL  E.  HUGHES,  m.d.,  Demonstrator  of  Clinical  Medicine  at 
Jefferson  Medical  College,  Philadelphia.  In  two  parts.  Being  Xos.  2  ami  j, 
?  Quiz-  Compend  ?  Series. 

PART  I. — Continued,  Eruptive  and  Periodical  Fevers,  Diseases  of  the  Stomach, 
Intestines,  Peritoneum,  Biliary  Passages,  Liver,  Kidneys,  etc.,  and  General 
Diseases,  etc. 

Part  II. — Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System,  Circulatory  System  and  Ner- 
vous System  ;   Diseases  of  the  Blood,  etc. 

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tion  on  Skin  Diseases,  and  an  index.     Fourth  revised,  enlarged  Edition. 
./(>.■  Full  Morocco,  (iilt  Edge,  5-. 50 

HUMPHREY.  A  Manual  for  Nurses.  Including  general  Anatomy  and  Physiology, 
management  ol  the  sick-i  I'.'.  Laurence  Humphrey,  ma.,  m.b., 
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HUTCHINSON.    The  Nose  and  Throat.    A  Manual  of  the  Diseases  of  the 

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Procter  s.  Hutchinson,  u.r.c.s.,  Ass't  Surgeon  to  the  London  Hospital  foi 
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JACOBSON.     Operations  of   Surgery.      By    W.    II.   A.   JACOBSON,    b  \.   OXON., 

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PARRISH'S  Alcoholic  Inebriety.     From)  a  Medical  Standpoint,  with  Illustrative 

from  the  Clinical  Records  of  the  Author.     Bj    [oseph   Parrish,  m.d., 

President  of  the  Amer.  Asso<  .  foi  l  !ure  ol  Inebriates.      Paper,  .75 ;  Cloth,  51.25 

OMEROD.    Diseases  of  Nervous  System,  Student's  Guide  to.     B)  [.  A.  Om 
mil.  Oxon.,  f.r.c.p.  ( I  nini.  1,  Mem.  Pith.,  Clin.,  Ophth.,  and  Neurol. 
Physician  t<>  National  Hospital  for  Paralyzed  and  Epileptic  and  to '  don 

Hospital  for  Diseases  of   the  I  best,  Denv  of  Morbid  Anatomy,  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's Hospital,  etc.    With  75  wood  engravings.     In  IVess. 


18  P.  BLAKJSTON,  SON  6-  CO.'S  PUBLICA  TIONS. 


PARVIN'S  Winckel's  Diseases  of  Women.    (See  Winckel,  page  25.) 

PARVIN.    Lectures  on  Obstetric  Nursing1.    Delivered  at  the  Training  School  for 

Nurses  of  the  Philadelphia  Hospital.     By  Theophilus  Parvin,  m.d.,  Professor 

of  Obstetrics  and  Diseases  of  Women  and  Children  at  Jefferson  Medical  College; 

Obstetrician  to  Philadelphia  Hospital.     i2ino.  Cloth,  .75 

PENNSYLVANIA  Hospital  Reports.  Edited  by  a  Committee  of  the  Hospital 
Staff:  J.  M.  DaCosta,  m.d.,  and  William  Hunt.  Containing  Original  Articles 
by  the  Staff.     With  many  other  Illustrations.  Paper,  .75;  Cloth,  $1.25 

PHYSICIAN'S  VISITING  LIST.  Published  Annually.  Forty-First  Year  of  its 
Publication. 

REGULAR  EDITION". 
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50    "     "2 vols.  {>?• ;° June  1       «    »    »    H    .     2.50 

3  J  July  to  Dec.  j  '  ° 

,~~         <<  ..  „      1         f  Tan.  to  Tune  1  „         ,,         ,, 

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EXTRA  Pencils  will  be  sent,  postpaid,  for  25  cents  per  half  dozen. 

BSf*  This  List  combines  the  several  essential  qualities  of  strength,  compactness, 
durability  and  convenience.  It  is  made  in  all  sizes  and  styles  to  meet  the  wants  of  all 
physicians.  It  is  not  an  elaborate,  complicated  system  of  keeping  accounts,  but  a 
plain,  simple  record,  that  may  be  kept  with  the  least  expenditure  of  time  and  trouble — 
hence  its  popularity.  A  special  circular,  descriptive  of  contents  and  improvements, 
will  be  sent  upon  application. 

PEREIRA'S  Prescription  Book.  Containing  Lists  of  Terms,  Phrases,  Contrac- 
tions and  Abbreviations  used  in  Prescriptions,  Explanatory  Notes,  Grammatical 
Construction  of  Prescriptions,  Rules  for  the  Pronunciation  of  Pharmaceutical 
Terms.  By  Jonathan  Pereira,  m.d.  Sixteenth  Edition.  Cloth,  $1.00;  Tucks  $1.25 

PORTER'S  Surgeon's  Pocket-Book.  By  Surgeon-Major  J.  H.  Porter,  late  Pro- 
fessor of  Military  Surgery  in  the  Army  Medical  School,  Netley,  England.  Revised, 
and  partly  Rewritten.     Third  Edition.     Small  i2mo.  Leather  Covers,  $2.25 

POWER,  HOLMES,  ANSTIE  and  BARNES  (Drs.).  Reports  on  the  Progress  of 
Medicine,  Surgery,  Physiology,  Midwifery,  Diseases  of  Women  and  Children, 
Materia  Medica,  Medical  Jurisprudence,  Ophthalmology,  etc.  Reported  for  the 
New  Sydenham  Society.     8vo.  Paper,  .75  ;  Cloth,  $1.25 

POTTER.  A  Handbook  of  Materia  Medica,  Pharmacy  and  Therapeutics,  in- 
cluding the  Action  of  Medicines,  Special  Therapeutics,  Pharmacology,  etc.  In- 
cluding over  600  Prescriptions  and  Formulae.  By  Samuel  O.  L.  Potter,  m.a., 
m.d.,  m.r.c.p.  (Lond.),  Professor  of  the  Practice  of  Medicine,  Cooper  Medical  Col- 
lege, San  Francisco ;  late  A.  A.  Surgeon  U.  S.  Army.  Third  Edition,  Revised  and 
Enlarged.    8vo.     With  Thumb  bidex  in  each  copy.     Cloth,  $4.00;  Leather,  $5.00 


JHE   PRACTICAL  SERIES. 


THREE   NEW  VOLUMES. 


PARKES.  Hygiene  and  Public  Health.  A  Practical  Manual.  By  Louis  C. 
PARKES,  m.d.,  d.p.h.,  London  Hospital;  Fellow  of  the  Sanitary  Institute; 
Assistant  Professor  of  Hygiene  and  Public  Health  at  University  College,  etc. 
i2mo.     Second  Edition.  Cloth,  52.50 

LEWERS.  On  the  Diseases  of  Women.  A  Practical  Treatise.  By  Dr.  A.  II. 
X.  Lewf.ks,  Assistant  Obstetric  Physician  to  the  London  Hospital ;  and  Phy- 
sician to  Out-patients,  Queen  Charlotte's  Lying-in  Hospital;  Examiner  in  Mid- 
wifery and  Diseases  of  Women  to  the  Society  of  Apothecaries  of  London.  With 
146  Engravings.     Second  Edition,  Revised.  Cloth,  $2.50 

BUXTON.  On  Anaesthetics.  A  Manual  of  their  Uses  and  Administration.  By 
Dudley  Wil.mot  Buxton,  m.d.,  b.s.,  Ass't  to  Prof,  of  Med.,  and  Administrator 
of  Anaesthetics,  University  College  Hospital,  London.     Illustrated. 

Second  Edition  in  Press. 


MONEY.  On  Children.  Treatment  of 
Disease  in  Children,  including  theOut- 
lines  of  Diagnosis  and  the  Chief 
Pathological  Differences  between  Chil- 
dren and  Adults.  By  Angel  Money, 
m.d.,  M.R.C.P.,  Ass't  Physician  to  the 
Hospital  fur  Sick  Children,  Great 
Ormond  St.,  and  to  the  Victoria  Park 
Chest  Hospital,  London.  121110.  560 
pages.  Cloth,  $3.00 

PPvITCHAPvD.  On  the  Ear.  Handbook 
of  Diseases  of  the  Ear.  By  Urban 
PrITCHARD,  m.d.,  f.r.c.s.,  Professor 
of  Aural  Surgery,  King's  College, 
London,  Aural  Surgeon  to  King's 
College  Hospital,  Senior  Surgeon  to 
the  Royal  Ear  Hospital,  etc.  1 21110. 
2d  Edition.    Illustrated.    Cloth,  51.50 

BARRETT.  Dental  Surgery  for  Gen- 
eral Practitioners  and  Student 
M cli'  ine  and  Dentistry.  Extraction 
of  Teeth,  etc.  By  A.  W.  Mauri  11, 
.m.d.  2d  Edition,  Revised  and  En- 
larged.   80  Illustrations.    Cloth,  51.25 


COLLIE  On  Fevers.  A  Practical  Treat- 
ise on  Fevers,  Their  History,  Etiology. 
Diagnosis,  Prognosis  and  Treatment. 
By  Alexander  Collie,  m.d.,  m.r. 
c.p.,  Lond.  Medical  Officer  of  the  Ho- 
merton,  and  of  the  London  Fever  Hos- 
pitals. Colored  Plates.  Cloth,  52.50 
RALFE.    Diseases  of  the  Kidney  and 

Urinary    Derangements.      By    C.    II. 

Ralfe,  m.d.,  f.r.c.p.,  Ass't  Physician 

to  the  London  Hospital.     Illustrated. 

i2mo.  Clotn,  52.75 

REEVES.  Bodily  Deformities  and 
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the  London  Hospital,  Surgeon  to  the 
Royal  Orthopaedic  Hospital.   22S  Illus. 

ith,  ^2.25 
HIGGENS.  Ophthalmic  Practice.  A 
Manual  for  Students  ami  Practitioners, 
By  Charles  Higgins,  p.r.c.p.,  Oph- 
thalmic Surgeon  to  Guy's  Hospital. 
Illustrated.     274  pages.       Cloth. 


le  volumes  of  this  tenet,  written  l>y  well-known  physicians  and  mrgeona  of  large 
private  ami  hospital  experience,  embrace  the  various  bram  hes  <>t  medicine  an  1  bey 

are  "i  ■  thoroughly  practical  <  b  trader,  call  nlated  t<>  meet  the  requirements  of  the  practitioner, 
and  present  the  most  re©  nl  methods  and  information  in  ■  compsv  t  shape  and  at  ■  low  price. 

Bound  Uniformly,   in  a  Handsome  and  Distinctive  Cloth  Binding,  and 
mailed  to  any  address,  on  receipt  of  the  price. 


20  P.  BLAKISTON,  SON  &°  CO.'S 

POTTER.  Compend  of  Anatomy,  including  Visceral  Anatomy.  Based  upon 
Gray.  Fifth  Edition.  Revised,  and  greatly  Enlarged.  With  16  Lithographed 
Plates  and  117  other  Illustrations.    Being  No.  1  ?  Quiz- Compend  ?  Series. 

Cloth,  $1.00;  Interleaved  for  taking  Notes,  $1.25 

Compend  of  Materia  Medica,  Therapeutics  and  Prescription  Writing. 

with  special  reference  to  the  Physiological  Action  of  Drugs.     Fifth  Revised 

and  Improved  Edition,  with  Index.     Being  No.  6  ?  Quiz- Compend ?  Series. 

Cloth,  $1.00.     Interleaved  for  taking  Notes,  $1.25 

Speech    and    Its    Defects.     Considered   Physiologically,  Pathologically  and 

Remedially ;  being  the  Lea  Prize  Thesis  of  Jefferson  Medical  College,  1882. 

Revised  and  Corrected.     121110.  Cloth,  $1.00 

PRITCHARD  on  the  Ear.  Handbook  of  Diseases  of  the  Ear.  By  Urban 
Pritchard,  m.d.,  f.r.c.s. .Professor  of  Aural  Surgery,  King's  College,  London, 
Aural  Surgeon  to  King's  College  Hospital,  Senior  Surgeon  to  the  Royal  Ear 
Hospital,  etc.  Second  Edition.  Many  Illustrations  and  Formulae.  i2mo.  Prac- 
tical Series.     See  Page  iq.  Cloth,  $1.50 

PROCTER'S  Practical  Pharmacy.  Lectures  on  Practical  Pharmacy.  With  43 
Engravings  and  32  Lithographic  Fac -simile  Prescriptions.  By  Barnard  S. 
Procter.     Second  Edition.  Cloth,  $4.50 

RALFE.  Diseases  of  the  Kidney  and  Urinary  Derangements.  By  C.  H.  Ralfe. 
Illustrated.     i2mo.     Practical  Series.     See  Page  iq.  Cloth,  #2.75 

RAMSAY.  A  System  of  Inorganic  Chemistry.  By  William  Ramsay,  ph.d., 
f.r.s.,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  University  College,  London.     Illustrated.     8vo. 

Cloth,  $4.50 

REESE'S  Medical  Jurisprudence  and  Toxicology.  A  Text-book  for  Medical  and 
Legal  Practitioners  and  Students.  By  John  J.  Reese,  m.d.,  Editor  of  Taylor's 
Jurisprudence,  Professor  of  the  Principles  and  Practice  of  Medical  Jurisprudence, 
including  Toxicology,  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  Medical  Department. 
Third  Edition.   Enlarged.  Crown  Octavo.  666  pages.    Cloth,  $3.00;  Leather,  $3.50 

REEVES.  Bodily  Deformities  and  their  Treatment.  A  Handbook  of  Practical 
Orthopaedics.    By  H.  A.  Reeves,  m.d.    Practical  Series.    See  Page  iq.     CI.,  $2.25 

RICHARDSON.  Long  Life,  and  How  to  Reach  It.  By  J.  G.  Richardson,  Prof, 
of  Hygiene,  University  of  Penna.  Cloth,  .50 

RICHARDSON'S  Mechanical  Dentistry.  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Mechanical 
Dentistry.  By  Joseph  Richardson,  d.d.s.  Fifth  Edition.  Thoroughly  Revised. 
With  569  Illustrations.     8vo.  Cloth,  $4.50  ;  Leather,  $5.50 

RIGBY'S  Obstetric  Memoranda.    4th  Ed.    By  Meadows.    321110.         Cloth,  .50 

RICHTER'S  Inorganic  Chemistry.    A  Text-book  for  Students.    By  Prof.  Victor 

von   Richter,    University  of  Breslau.      Third    American,  from  Fifth  German 

Edition.      Authorized   Translation   by  Edgar  F.  Smith,  m.a.,  ph.d.,  Prof,  of 

Chemistry,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Member  of  the  Chemical  Societies  of 

Berlin  and  Paris.    89  Illustrations  and  a  Colored  Plate.     i2mo.  Cloth,  $2.00 

Organic   Chemistry.     The  Chemistry  of  the  Carbon  Compounds.     Second 

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M.  A.,  PH.  D.,  Professor  of  Chemistry,  University  of  Pennsylvania.     Illustrated. 

1040  pages.      i2mo.  Cloth,  $4. 50 

ROBERTS.  Practice  of  Medicine.  The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Medicine.  By 
Frederick  Roberts,  m.d.,  Professor  of  Therapeutics  at  University  College, 
London.    Eighth  Edition,  with  Illustrations.    8vo.      Cloth,  $5.50;  Leather,  $6.50 

ROBINSON.  Latin  Grammar  of  Pharmacy  and  Medicine.  By  D.  H.  Robinson, 
PH.D.,  Professor  of  Latin  Language  and  Literature,  University  of  Kansas,  Law- 
rence. With  an  Introduction  by  L.  E.  Sayre,  ph.g.,  Professor  of  Pharmacy  in, 
and  Dean  of  the  Dept.  of  Pharmacy,  University  of  Kansas.    1 2mo.        Cloth,  $2.00 


MEDICAL  AND  SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICA  TIONS.  21 


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By  J.  Burdom  Sanderson,  m.d.,  E.  Klein,  m.d.,  Michael  Foster,  m.d.,f.r.s., 
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SANSOM.  On  Chloroform.  Its  Action  and  Administration.  By  Arthur  Ernest 
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SCHNEE.  Diabetes,  its  Cause  and  Permanent  Cure.  From  the  standpoint  of  ex- 
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vised and  Enlarged  by  the  author.     Octavo.  Cloth,  52.00 

SCHULTZE.  Obstetrical  Diagrams.  Being  a  Series  of  20  Colored  Lithograph 
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SELF-EXAMINATION,  being  3000  Questions  on  Medical  Subjects,  Anatomy, 
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stetrics, Gynaecology,  Diseases  of  Children,  etc.     641110.         Cloth,  Net,  10  cents. 

SEWELL.  Dental  Surgery,  including  Special  Anatomy  and  Surgery.  By  Henry 
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Edition,  greatly  enlarged,  with  about  200  Illustrations.  Cloth,  $3.00 

SMITH'S  Wasting  Diseases  of  Infants  and  Children.  By  Eustace  Smith,  m.d., 
P.R.C.P.,  Physician  to  the  East  London  Children's  Hospital.  Fifth  London 
Edition,  Enlarged.     8vo.  Cloth,  $3.00 

SMITH.  Abdominal  Surgery.  Being  a  Systematic  Description  of  all  the  Princi- 
pal Operations.  By  J.  GREIG  SMITH,  M.A.,  f.r.s.e..  Surg,  to  British  Royal  In- 
lumary  ;  Lecturer  on  Surgery,  Bristol  Medical  School  ;  Late  Examiner  in  Surgery, 
University  of  Aberdeen,  etc.     Over  80  Illustrations.     Fourth  Edition.     In  Press. 

SMITH.  Electro-Chemical  Analysis.  By  Edgar  F.  Smith,  Professor  of  Chem- 
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SMITH  AND  KELLER.    Experiments.    Arranged  for  Students  in  General  Chem- 
istry.   Bj   Edgar  F.Smith,  Professor  of  Chemistry,  University  ol  Penna  and 
I  )i.  II.  F.  Keller,  Professoi  of  ( Chemistry,  Michigan  School  of  Mines,  Houghton, 
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STAMMER.  Chemical  Problems,  with  Explanations  and  Answers.  By  Karl 
Stammer.  Translated  from  the  2. 1  German  Edition,  by  Prof.  W.  S.  Hoskinson, 
a.m.,  Wittenb  field,  Ohio.     121110.  Cloth.  .75 

STARR.    The  Digestive  Organs  in  Childhood.    Second  Edition.    Thi 

,,1   the   Ui  e  tive  Oi  ;ans  in   Infancy  and  Childhood.     With  Chapters  on   the 
Investigation  ol  I  nd  the  Management  oi  Children.     By  Louis  Starr, 

mi...  late  C  linii  al  Prof,  ol  I  >isea  Idren  in  the  Hospital  ol  the  Universit) 

of    Penna;    Physician   to  me   Children's    Hospital,    Phita.     Second    Edition, 
and    Enlarged.     Illustrated   by  two   Colored    Lithograph    Plates    and 
numerous  wood  engravings.    <  rown  Octavo.  Cloth,  $2.25 

The  Hygiene  of  the  Nursery,  including  the  General  Regimen  and  Feed 
ol  Infants  and'  hildren,  and  the  Domestii  Management  ol  the  Ordinary 
1. 11,.  ol   Early  Life,  Ma  Third   Edition,     Enlai 

Illustrations.     12m.  C  loth,  ^1.00 

See  also  Goodhart  and  Starr.     Pag*  /,K 


22  P.  BLAKISTON,  SON  &■>  CO.'S 

STEWART'S  Compend  of  Pharmacy.  Based  upon  "  Remington's  Text-Book  of 
Pharmacy."  By  F.  E.  Stewart,  m.d.,  ph.g.,  Quiz  Master  in  Chem.  and  Theoreti- 
cal Pharmacy,  Phila.  College  of  Pharmacy;  Demonstrator  and  Lect.  in  Pharma- 
cology, Medico-Chirurgical  College,  and  in  Woman's  Medical  College.  3d.  Ed. 
With  complete  tables  of  Metric  and  English  Systems  of  Weights  and  Measures 
and  an  elaborate  Index.     ? Quiz- Compend?  Series.  Cloth,  $1.00 

Interleaved  for  the  addition  of  notes,  $1.25 

STIRLING.  Outlines  of  Practical  Physiology.  Including  Chemical  and  Experi- 
mental Physiology,  with  Special  Reference  to  Practical  Medicine.  By  W.  Stir- 
ling, m.d.,  scd.,  Prof,  of  Phys.,  Owens  College,  Victoria  University,  Manchester. 
Examiner  in  Honors  School  of  Science,  Oxford,  England.  142  Illustrations. 
309  pages.  Cloth,  $2.25 

Outlines  of  Practical  Histology.     A  Manual  for  Students.     With  344  Illus- 
trations.    i2mo.  Cloth,  $4.00 

STOCKEN'S  Dental  Materia  Medica.  Dental  Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics, 
with  Pharmacopoeia.     By  James  Stocken,  d.d.s.     Third  Edition.     Cloth,  $2.50 

STRAHAN.  Extra-Uterine  Pregnancy.  The  Diagnosis  and  Treatment  of  Extra- 
Uterine  Pregnancy.  Being  the  Jenks  Prize  Essay  of  the  College  of  Physicians 
of  Philadelphia.  By  John  Strahan,  m.d.  (Univ.  of  Ireland),  late  Res.  Surgeon 
Belfast  Union  Infirmary  and  Fever  Hospital.     Octavo.  Cloth,  #1.50 

SUTTON'S  Volumetric  Analysis.  A  Systematic  Handbook  for  the  Quantitative 
Estimation  of  Chemical  Substances  by  Measure,  Applied  to  Liquids,  Solids  and 
Gases.  By  Francis  Sutton,  f.c.S.  Sixth  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged, 
with  Illustrations.     8vo.  Cloth,  $5.00 

SUTTON.  Ligaments.  Their  Nature  and  Morphology.  By  John  Bland  Sutton, 
f.r.c.s.,  Lecturer  on  Pathology,  Royal  College  of  Surgeons ;  Ass't  Surg,  and 
Dem.  of  Anatomy,  Middlesex  Hospital,  London.    Illustrated.    i2mo.    Cloth,  $1.25 

SWAIN.  Surgical  Emergencies,  together  with  the  Emergencies  Attendant  on 
Parturition  and  the  Treatment  of  Poisoning.  A  Manual  for  the  Use  of  General 
Practitioners.     By  W\  F.  Swain,  f.r.c.s.     Fourth  Edition.     Illustrated.         $1.50 

SWANZY.  Diseases  of  the  Eye  and  their  Treatment.  A  Handbook  for  Physi- 
cians and  Students.  By  Henry  R.  Swanzy,  a.m.,  m.b.,  f.r.c.s. i.,  Surgeon  to 
the  National  Eye  and  Ear  Infirmary  ;  Ophthalmic  Surgeon  to  the  Adelaide  Hos- 
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Ireland.  Third  Edition.  Thoroughly  Revised.  158  Illustrations.  508  pages. 
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SYMONDS.  Manual  of  Chemistry,  for  the  special  use  of  Medical  Students.  By 
Brandreth  Symonds,  a.m.,  m.d.,  Ass't  Physician  Roosevelt  Hospital,  Out- 
Patient  Department ;  Attending  Physician  Northwestern  Dispensary,  New  York. 
i2mo.  Cloth,  $2.00 

TAFT'S  Operative  Dentistry.  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Operative  Dentistry.  By 
Jonathan  Taft,  d.d.s.  Fourth  Revised  and  Enlarged  Edition.  Over  100  Il- 
lustrations. 8vo.  Cloth,  $4.25  ;  Leather,  #5.00 
Index  of  Dental  Periodical  Literature.    8vo.  Cloth,  #2.00 

TALBOT.  Irregularities  of  the  Teeth,  and  Their  Treatment.  By  Eugene  S. 
Talbot,  m.d.,  Professor  of  Dental  Surgery  Woman's  Medical  College,  and 
Lecturer  on  Dental  Pathology  in  Rush  Medical  College,  Chicago.  Second  Edi- 
tion, Revised  and  Enlarged  by  about  100  pages.  Octavo.  234  Illustrations 
(169  of  which  are  original).     261  pages.  Cloth,  $3.00 

TANNER'S  Memoranda  of  Poisons  and  their  Antidotes  and  Tests.  By  Thos. 
Hawk.es  Tanner,  m.d.,  f.r.c.p.  Sixth  American,  from  the  Last  London  Edition. 
Revised  by  Henry  Leffmann,  m.d.,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  Pennsylvania 
College  of  Dental  Surgery  and  in  the  Philadelphia  Polyclinic.    i2mo.     Cloth,  .75 

TAYLOR.  Practice  of  Medicine.  A  Manual.  By  Frederick  Taylor,  m.d., 
Physician  to,  and  Lecturer  on  Medicine  at,  Guy's  Hospital,  London  ;  Physician  to 
Evelina  Hospital  for  Sick  Children,  and  Examiner  in  Materia  Medica  and  Phar- 
maceutical Chemistry,  University  of  London.  Cloth,  $4.00 ;  Sheep,  $5.00 


MEDICAL  AND  SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICA  TIONS.  23 

TEMPERATURE  Charts  for  Recording  Temperature,  Respiration,  Pulse,  Day  of 
Disease,  Date,  Age,  Sex,  Occupation,  Name,  etc.  Put  up  in  pads;  each  .50 

HOMPSON.     Lithotomy  and  Lithotrity.    Practical  Lithotomy  and  Lithotrity  ;  or 
an  Inquiry  into  the  best  Modes  of  Removing  Stone  from  the  Bladder.     By  Sir 
Henry  THOMPSON,  f.r.c.s.,  Emeritus  Professor  of  Clinical  Surgery  in  Univer- 
sity College.     Third  Edition.     With  87  Engravings.     8vo.  Cloth,  53.50 
Urinary  Organs.     Diseases  of  the  Urinary  Organs.    Containing  32  Lectures. 
Eighth  London  Ed.    Octavo.     470  pages.  Cloth,  £3.50 

On  the  Prostate.     Diseases  of  the  Prostate.     Their  Pathology  and  Treatment. 
Sixth  London  Edition.     8vo.     Illustrated.  Cloth,  $2.00 

Calculous  Diseases.     The  Preventive  Treatment  of  Calculous  Disease,  and 
the  Use  of  Solvent  Remedies.     Third  Edition.        i6mo.  Cloth,  $1.00 

Surgery  of  the  Urinary  Organs.  Some  Important  Points  connected  with  the 
Surgery  of  the  Urinary  Organs.     Illus.  Paper,  .75  ;  Cloth,  51.25 

THORBURN.  Surgery  of  the  Spinal  Cord.  A  Contribution  to  the  study  of.  By 
WILLIAM  THORBURN,  e.s.,  b.Sc,  m.d.,  Lond.,  f.r.c.s.,  Eng.  With  Illustrations. 
Octavo.  Cloth,  54.50 

THORNTON.  The  Surgery  of  the  Kidney.  By  John  Knowsley  Thornton, 
M.B.  Edin.     With  19  Illustrations.  Cloth,  51.75 

TILT'S  Change  of  Life  in  Women,  in  Health  and  Disease.  A  Practical  Treatise 
on  the  Diseases  incidental  to  Women  at  the  Decline  of  Life.  By  Edward  John 
Tilt,  m.d.     Fourth  London  Edition.     8vo.  Cloth,  51.25 

TOMES'  Dental  Anatomy.  A  Manual  of  Dental  Anatomy,  Human  and  Compara- 
tive.    By  C.  S.  Tomes,  d.d.s.     212  Illustrations.     3d  Ed.     i2mo.       Cloth,  54.00 

Dental  Surgery.  A  System  of  Dental  Surgery.  By  John  Tomes,  f.r.s. 
Third  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.  By  C.  S.  Tomes,  d.d.s.  With 
292  Illustrations.     i2mo.     772  pages.  Cloth,  55.00 

TRANSACTIONS  of  the  College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia.  Third  Series. 
Vols.  1,  II,  III,  IV,  V,  Cloth,  each,  52.50.  VI,  VII,  Cloth,  each,  53.50.  Vol. 
VIII,  1886,  Cloth,  53.75.     Vol.  IX,  Cloth,  52.50. 

TRANSACTIONS  American  Surgical  Association.  Illustrated.  Royal  8vo. 
Price  ol  Vol.  1,  II,  111,  IV,  V,  each,  Cloth,  53.00.  Vol.  VI,  Cloth,  £4.50.  Vol. 
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TRANSACTIONS  of  the  Association  of  American  Physicians.  Vols.  I  and  [I, 
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TREVES.  German-English  Medical  Dictionary.  By  Frederick  Treves,  i.k.c.s., 
assisted  by  Dr.  Hugo  Lang,  b.a.  (Munich).     12010.  '.-  Russia, 

TRIMBLE.    Practical  and  Analytical  Chemistry.     Being  a  complete  com 

Chemical  Analysis.     B\  Henry  Trimble,  ph.m.,  Professor  of  Analytical  Chem- 
istry in   the   Philadelphia  College  of   Pharmacy.     Fourth  Edition.     Enlai 
Illustrated.    8vo.  Cloth,  $1.50 

TURNBULL'S  Artificial  Anaesthesia.    The  Advantages  and  Accidents  oi 

cial  Anaesthesia ;  Its  Employment  in  the  [reatmenl  ol  Disease;  Modes  ol  Ad- 
ministration; theii  Relative  Ri  1  »1  Purity;    rreatmentol 
phyxia ;  Spasms  of  the  Glottis;  Syncope,  etc,     B)  Lauren*  b  H  rnbi  ll,  m.d., 
ph.  (,.,  Aural  Surgeon  to  Jefferson  College  Hospital,  etc    Third  Edition,   Re- 
ed and  Enlarged.    40  Illustrations,     1211m.  I  loth,  53.00 

TUSON.  Veterinary  Pharmacopoeia.  Including  the  Outline*  of  Materia  Medics 
.mil  Therapeutics.  F01  the  Use  of  Students  and  Practitioners  ol  Veterinary 
Medicine.     By  Richard  V.  Tuson,  F.cs.    Third  Edition,     tamo.     Cloth,  52.50 


24  p.  BLAKISTON,  SON  6-  CO.'S 

TYSON.  Bright's  Disease  and  Diabetes.  With  Especial  Reference  to  Pathology 
and  Therapeutics.  By  James  Tyson,  m.d.,  Professor  of  Clinical  Medicine  in 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Including  a  Section  on  Retinitis  in  Bright's 
Disease.  By  Wm.  F.  Norris,  m.d.,  Clin.  Prof,  of  Ophthalmology  in  Univ.  of 
Penna.     With  Colored  Plates  and  many  Wood  Engravings.     8vo.     Cloth,  $3.50 

Guide  to  the  Examination  of  Urine.  Seventh  Edition.  For  the  Use  of 
Physicians  and  Students.  With  Colored  Plates  and  Numerous  Illustrations 
Engraved  on  Wood.  Seventh  Edition.  Revised.  i2mo.  255pages.  Cloth,$i.5o 

Cell  Doctrine.  Its  History  and  Present  State.  With  a  Copious  Bibliography 
of  the  subject.     Illustrated.     Second  Edition.     8vo.  Cloth,  $2.00 

Handbook  of  Physical  Diagnosis.    Illustrated,    nrao.  Cloth,  $1.25 

VAN  HARLINGEN  on  Skin  Diseases.  A  Practical  Manual  of  Diagnosis  and 
Treatment.  By  Arthur  Van  Harlingen,  m.d.,  Professor  of  Diseases  of  the 
Skin  in  the  Philadelphia  Polyclinic ;  Clinical  Lecturer  on  Dermatology  at  Jef- 
ferson Medical  College.  Second  Edition.  Revised  and  Enlarged.  With  Formulas. 
Eight  Colored  and  other  full-page  plates,  and  New  Illustrations.  Cloth,  $2.50 

VAN  NUYS  on  The  Urine.  Chemical  Analysis  of  Healthy  and  Diseased  Urine, 
Qualitative  and  Quantitative.  By  T.  C.  Van  Nuys,  Professor  of  Chemistry 
Indiana  University.     39  Illustrations.     Octavo.  Cloth,  $2.00 

VIRCHOWS  Post-mortem  Examinations.    A  Description  and  Explanation  of  the 
Method  of  Performing  them  in  the  Dead  House  of  the  Berlin  Charite  Hospital, 
with  especial  reference  to  Medico-legal  Practice.     By  Prof.  Virchow.     Trans- 
lated by  Dr.  T.  P.  Smith.     Third  Edition,  with  Additions.  Cloth,  jjji.co 
Cellular  Pathology,  as  based  upon  Physiological  and  Pathological  Histology. 
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from  the  2d  Ed.  by  F.  Chance,  m.d.    134  Illus.     8th  Am.  Ed.     Cloth,  $4.00 

WALSHAM.  Manual  of  Practical  Surgery.  For  Students  and  Physicians.  By 
Wm.  J.  Walsham,  m.d.,  f.r.c.S.,  Ass't  Surg,  to,  and  Dem.  of  Practical  Surg,  in, 
St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital,  Surg,  to  Metropolitan  Free  Hospital,  London. 
Third  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.  With  318  Engravings.  New  Series  of 
Manuals.  Cloth,  $3.00  ;  Leather,  $3.50 

WARING.  Practical  Therapeutics.  A  Manual  for  Physicians  and  Students.  By 
Edward  J.  Waring,  m.d.  Fourth  Edition.  Revised,  Rewritten  and  Rearranged 
by  Dudley  W.  Buxton,  m.d.,  Assistant  to  the  Professor  of  Medicine,  University 
College,  London.     Crown  Octavo.  Cloth,  $3.00;  Leather,  $3.50 

WARREN.  Compend  Dental  Pathology  and  Dental  Medicine.  Containing  all 
the  most  noteworthy  points  of  interest  to  the  Dental  student.  By  Geo.  W. 
Warren,  d.d.s.,  Clinical  Chief,  Penn'a  College  of  Dental  Surgery,  Phila.  Illus. 
Being  No.  13  ?  Quiz- Compend?  Series.     i2mo.  Cloth,  $1.00 

Interleaved  for  the  addition  of  Notes,  $1.25 

WATSON   on  Amputations   of    the    Extremities   and  Their   Complications.      By 
B.  A.  Watson,  a.m.,  m.d.,  Surgeon  to  the  Jersey  City  Charity  Hospital  and  to 
Christ's  Hospital,  Jersey  City,  N.  J. ;  Member  of  the  American  Surgical  Associ- 
ation.    250  Wood  Engravings  and  two  Full-page  Colored  Plates.        Cloth,  $5.50 
Concussions.     An  Experimental  Study  of  Lesions  arising  from  Severe  Con- 
cussions.    8vo.  Paper  cover,  $1.00 

WATTS'  Inorganic  Chemistry.     A  Manual  of  Chemistry,  Physical  and  Inorganic. 

(Being  the  14th  Edition  of  Fowne's  Physical  and  Inorganic  Chemistry.) 

By  Henry  Watts,  b.a.,  f.r.s.,  Editor  of  the  Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society; 

Author  of  "A  Dictionary  of  Chemistry,"  etc.     With  Colored  Plate  of  Spectra 

and  other  Illustrations.     i2mo.     595  pages.  Cloth,  $2.25 

Organic  Chemistry.     Second  Edition.     By  Wm.  A.  Tilden,  d.sc,  f.r.s. 

(Being  the  13th  Edition  of  Fowne's  Organic  Chemistry.)     Illustrated. 

i2mo.  Cloth,  $2.25 


MEDICAL  AND  SCIENTIFIC  PUBLIC  A  TIONS.  25 

WHITE.  The  Mouth  and  Teeth.  By  J.  W.  White,  m.d.,  d.d.s.  Editor  of  the 
Dental  Cosmos.     Illustrated.  Cloth,  .50 

WILSON.  Handbook  of  Hygiene  and  Sanitary  Science.  With  Illustrations.  Seventh 
Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.     8vo.  hi  Press. 

WILSON.  The  Summer  and  its  Diseases.  By  James  C.  Wilson,  m.d.,  Professor 
of  the  Practice  of  Medicine  and  Clinical  Medicine,  Jefferson  Medical  College, 
Philadelphia.  Cloth,  .50 

WINCKEL.  Diseases  of  Women.  Second  Edition.  Including  the  Dis- 
eases of  the  Bladder  and  Urethra.  By  Dr.  F.  Winxkel,  Professor  of 
Gynaecology,  and  Director  of  the  Royal  University  Clinic  for  Women,  in  Munich. 
Translated  by  special  authority  of  Author  and  Publisher,  under  the  supervision 
of.  and  with  an  Introduction  by,  Theophilus  Parvin,  m.d.,  Professor  of 
Obstetrics  and  Diseases  of  Women  and  Children  in  Jefferson  Medical  Col- 
lege, Philadelphia.  With  150  Engravings  on  Wood,  most  of  which  are  original. 
2d  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.  Cloth,  $3.00;  Leather,  53.50 

Text-Book  of  Obstetrics;  Including  the  Pathology  and  Therapeutics  of  the 
Puerperal  State.  Authorized  Translation  by  J.  Clifton  Edgar,  a.m.,  m.d., 
Adjunct  Professor  to  the  Chair  of  Obstetrics,  Medical  Department,  University, 
City  of  New  York.  With  nearly  200  Handsome  Illus.,  the  majority  of  which 
are  original  with  this  work.     Octavo.  Cloth,  56.00;  Leather,  $7.00 

WOAKES.  Post-Nasal  Catarrh  and  Diseases  of  the  Nose,  causing  Deafness.  By 
EDWARD  WOAKES,  m.d.,  Senior  Aural  Surgeon  to  the  London  Hospital  for 
Diseases  of  the  Throat  and  Chest.     26  Illustrations.  Cloth,  51.50 

WOLFF.  Manual  of  Applied  Medical  Chemistry  for  Students  and  Practitioners  of 
Medicine.  By  Lawrence  Wolff,  m.d.,  Demonstrator  of  Chemistry  in  Jeffer- 
son Medical  College,  Philadelphia.  Cloth,  $1.00 

WOOD.  Brain  Work  and  Overwork.  By  Prof.  H.  C.  Wood,  Clinical  Professor 
of  Nervous  Diseases,  University  of  Pennsylvania.     i2mo.  Cloth,  .50 

WOODY.  Essentials  of  Chemistry  and  Urinalysis.  By  Sam  E.  Woody,  a.m., 
m.d.,  Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Public  Hygiene,  and  Clinical  Lecturer  on 
Diseases  of  Children,  in   the    Kentucky   School   of  Medicine.     Third   Edition. 

Illustrated.     i2mo.  Cloth,  51.25 

WYNTER  and  WETHERED.  Clinical  and  Practical  Pathology.  A  Manual 
of  Clinical  and  Practical  Pathology.  By  W.  ESSBX  WYNTER,  m.i>..  Medical  Reg- 
istrar and  late    Dem.   of  Anat.   and   Chem.   at    the   Middlesex    Hospital,   and 

FRANK  I.  WETHERED,  m.d..  Ass't  Phys.  to  the  City  of  London   Hospital  for  Dis. 
of  the  Chest.     4  Colored  Plates  and  67  other  Illustrations.     8vo.  Cloth,  54.00 

WYTHE.  Dose  and  Symptom  Book.  The  Physician's  Pocket  Dose  and  Symptom 
Book.  Containing  the  Doses  and  Uses  of  all  the  Principal  Articles  of  the 
Materia  Medica,  and  Officinal  Preparations.  By  Joseph  II.  Wythe,  a.m.,  m.d. 
17th  Edition,  Revised  and   Rewritten. 

Cloth,  51.00;    Leather,  with   Tucks  and  Pocket,  51.25 

YEO'S  Manual  of  Physiology.  Fifth"  Edition.  A  Textbook  f..r  Students  of 
Medicine.  By  GERALD  I".  YBO.,  M.D,  k.k.c.s.,  Professor  of  Physiology  in  King's 
College,  London.  Fifth  Edition;  revised  and  enlarged  b)  the  author.  With 
321   Wood   Engravings  and  ■  Glossary.    Crown   Octavo.     Brimjf  No.  /. 

<S  of  Manuals.  Cloth.  53.00;  Leather,  5350. 


THERAPEUTICS  AND  MATERIA  MEDICA. 

Allen,    Harlan,    Penrose,    Van    Harlingen.       Local 
Therapeutics.  1892. 

a  handbook  of  local  therapeutics,  being  a  practical  description  of  all  those  agents 
used  in  the  local  treatment  of  disease,  such  as  Ointments,  Plasters,  Powders,  Lotions, 
Inhalations,  Suppositories,  Bougies,  Tampons,  etc.,  and  the  proper  methods  of  pre- 
paring and  applying  them.  By  Harrison  Allen,  m.d.,  Emeritus  Professor  of  Phy- 
siology in  the  University  of  Penna. ;  Laryngologist  to  the  Rush  Hospital  for 
Consumption  ;  late  Surgeon  to  the  Philadelphia  and  St.  Joseph's  Hospitals.  George 
C.  Harlan,  m.d.,  late  Professor  of  Diseases  of  the  Eye  in  the  Philadelphia  Polyclinic 
and  College  for  Graduates  in  Medicine;  Surgeon  to  the  Wills  Eye  Hospital,  and 
Eye  and  Ear  Department  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital.  Charles  B.  Penrose, 
m.d.,  Surgeon  to  the  German  Hospital;  Instructor  in  Clinical  Surgery,  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  Arthur  Van  Harlingen,  m.d.,  Professor  of  Diseases  of  the 
Skin  in  the  Philadelphia  Polyclinic  and  College  for  Graduates  in  Medicine;  late 
Clinical  Lecturer  on  Dermatology  in  Jefferson  Medical  College ;  Dermatologist  to 
the  Howard  Hospital. 

In  One  Handsome  Compact  Volume,  about  400  pages.     Nearly  Ready. 

Announcement. — The  importance  of  the  local  application  of  simple  remedies  in 
slight  ailments  of  special  organs,  is  not  always  realized  by  the  general  practitioner,  and 
the  average  text-book  omits  altogether  any  mention  of  many  agents  that  in  the  hands 
of  the  specialist  become  valuable  aids  to  cure.  The  diseases  which  chiefly  require  local 
treatment  are  those  of  the  Respiratory  Passages,  Ear,  Eye,  Skin,  together  with  certain 
general  Surgical  affections,  including  the  Diseases  of  Women.  In  order,  therefore,  that 
the  various  uses  of  each  remedy  should  be  thoroughly  set  forth,  it  was  necessary  to  have  a 
combination  of  authors  who  have  had  a  large  practical  experience  in  these  various 
branches  of  Medicine  and  Surgery. 

Each  remedy  will  be  taken  up  in  alphabetical  order,  and  after  a  succinct  description 
of  their  pharmaceutical  properties,  by  Dr.  George  I.  McKelway,  will  be  considered 
with  reference  to  the  local  treatment  of  the  affections  above  outlined.  The  publishers 
believe  that  the  information  contained  in  this  work  will  not  be  found  elsewhere,  as  much 
of  it  is  the  results  obtained  in  private  and  hospital  practice,  by  eminent  professors 
and  specialists.  The  activity  in  the  various  lines  of  special  medicine  is  one  of  the  most 
striking  phases  of  the  times,  and  has  materially  changed  many  of  the  older  methods  of 
treating  disease  by  local  means.  The  greater  part  of  the  literature  which  has  appeared  is 
not  accessible  to  most  physicians.  The  Handbook,  it  is  believed,  will  be  of  value  to 
general  practitioners  as  well  as  to  those  who,  like  the  authors,  are  especially  interested  in 
subdivisions  of  the  clinical  field. 

The  work  will  form  a  compact  volume  of  about  400  pages,  arranged  in  a  manner  to 
facilitate  reference  and  containing,  besides  the  usual  index,  a  complete  index  of  diseases, 
that  will  greatly  enhance  its  usefulness. 

This  book  is  being  pushed  forward  as  fast  as  possible.  Advance  orders  may  be  sent 
in  at  once,  and  copies  will  be  promptly  delivered  upon  publication. 

Biddle's  Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics.      Eleventh 
Edition.  1889. 

with  many  additions  and  new  illustrations.  For  the  Use  of  Students  and  Phy- 
sicians. By  Prof.  John  B.  Biddle,  m.d.,  Late  Professor  of  Materia  Medica  in  Jeffer- 
son Medical  College,  Philadelphia,  nth  Edition.  Revised  by  his  son,  Clement 
Biddle,  m.d.,  Assistant  Surgeon,  U.  S.  N.,  and  Henry  Morris,  m.d.,  Fellow  of  the 
College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia,  etc.  Cloth,  $4.25  ;  Leather,  $5.00 


THERAPEUTICS  AND  MATERIA  MEDICA. 

Potter's  Materia  Medica,  Pharmacy  and   Therapeutics. 
Third  Edition.      Revised  and  Enlarged.  189 1. 

a  handbook  of  materia  medica,  pharmacv  and  therapeutics — including  the  Phy- 
siological Action  of  Drugs,  Special  Therapeutics  of  Diseases,  Official  and  Extempo- 
raneous Pharmacy,  etc.  By  Sam'l  O.  L.  Potter,  m.a.,  m.d.,  Professor  of  the 
Practice  of  Medicine  in  Cooper  Medical  College,  San  Francisco;  Late  A.  A.  Sur- 
geon, U.  S.  Army ;  Author  of  "Speech  and  its  Defects,"  and  the  "  Quiz-Compends  " 
of  Anatomy  and  Materia  Medica,  etc.  Revised,  Enlarged  and  Improved.  Octavo. 
With  Thumb  Index.  Leather,  $5.00 

"The  author  has  aimed  to  embrace  in  a  single  volume  the  essentials  of  practical  materia  medica  and 
therapeutics,  and  has  produced  a  l>ook  small  enough  for  easy  carriage  and  easy  reference,  large  enough  to 
contain  a  carefully  digested,  lmt  full,  clear  and  well-arranged  mass  of  information.  He  has  not  adhered  to 
any  pharmacopoeia,  as  is  the  case  of  certain  recent  manuals,  thereby  limiting  his  work,  and  in  this  day  of  new 
remedies  causing  constant  disappointment,  but  has  brought  it  up  to  date  in  the  most  satisfactory  way.  No 
new  remedy  of  any  acknowledged  value  is  omitted  from  this  list.  Under  each  the  section  on  physiological 
action  and  therapeutics  has  been  mitten  with  cire.  ...  In  the  enumeration  of  drugs  suited  to  different 
disorders  a  very  successful  effort  at  discriminatk.n  lias  been  made,  both  in  the  stage  of  disease  and  in  the  cases 
peculiarly  suited  to  the  remedy.  It  is  no  mere  list  of  diseases  followed  by  a  catalogue  of  drugs,  but  is  a  digest 
of  modern  therapeutics,  and  as  such  will  prove  of  immense  use  to  its  possessor." — The  Therapititic  Geaetti. 

A  Unique  Book. — The  plan  of  this  work,  is  new  and  original  with  Dr.  Potter,  and  its 
contents  have  been  combined  and  arranged  in  such  a  way  that  it  offers  a  compact  statement 
of  the  subjects  in  hand,  containing  more  correct  information  in  a  practical,  concise  form 
than  any  other  publication  of  the  kind. 

The  work  commences  with  a  section  on  the  classification  of  medicines,  as  follows:  — 

V.f.nts  acting  on  the  Nervous  System,  Organs  of  Sense,  Respiration,  Circulation, 
Digestive  System,  on  Metabolism  (including  Restoratives,  Alteratives,  Astringents,  Anti- 
pyretics, Antiphlogistics  and  Antiperiodics,  etc.)  Agents  acting  upon  Excretion,  the 
Generative  System,  the  Cutaneous  Surfaces,  Microbes  and  Ferments,  and  upon  each  other. 

Part  I. — Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics  (351  pages),  the  drugs  being 
arranged  in  alphabetical  order,  with  the  synonym  of  each  first;  then  the  description  of 
the  plant,  its  preparations,  physiological  action,  and  lastly  its  Therapeutic*. 

Part  II. — Pharmacy  and  Prescription  Writing  (56  pages).  This  is  written  for 
the  use  of  physicians  who  desire  or  of  necessity  must  put  up  their  own  prescriptions,  and 
includes — Weights  and  Measures,  English  and  the  Metric  Systems;  Specific  Gravity  and 
Volume;  Prescriptions,  their  principles  and  combinations;  proper  methods  of  writing 
them;  Abbreviations;  Stock  solutions  and  preparations,  and  Incompatibility,  etc. 

Part  III. — Special  Therapeutics  (211  pages)  is  an  alphabetical  List  of  Diseases — 
a  real  Index  of  Diseases — giving  the  drugs  that  have  been  found  serviceable  in  each 
disease,  and  the  authority  recommending  the  use  of  each,  a  very  important 
feature,  as  it  gives  an  authoritative  character  to  the  book  that  is  unusual  in  works  on 
Therapeutics,  and  displays  an  immense  amount  of  research  <>n  the  part  of  the  author. 

600  Prescriptions  are  given  in  this  part,  many  being  over  the  names  of  eminent  men. 

The  Appendix  (36  pages)  contains  lists  of  Latin  words,  phrases  and  abbreviations, 
with  their  English  equivalents,  Genitivi   1        Endings,  e  formulae  for  Hypodermic 

injections;  10  of  Chlorodyne;  Formula  of  prominent  patent  medicines;  Poisons  and 
their  Antidote,;  Differential  Diagnosis;  Temperature  Notes;  Cfostetrical  Memoranda; 
Clinical  Examination  of  Urine;  Table  of  Specific  Gravities  and  Volumes;  Table  showing 
the  Dumber  of  drops  in  a  fluidrai  hro  of  various  liquids,  the  weight  of  one  fluidnu  hm  in 
grains,  and  a  table  for  <  inverting  apot  weights  and  n  Qto  grams,  etc.,  etc. 

Tin   Imh  x  covers  thirty-five  pages,  and  will  be  found  very  elaborate. 

'I'm.  wnoi  b  woi  itement  of  known  \.u  ts  in  terse  language;  it  is,  in  fact,  the 

ials  of  Prai  t<  il  Matei  ia  Medica  and  Therapeutics.    Although  it  is  to  a  -teat  extent  a 

compilation,  as  an)  su<  h  bonk  must  be,  from  the  works  of  prominent  writers  and  teachers, 

yet   it   will  be  found   to  contain  much  original   matter  and  many  useful  suggestions  not 

mi  luded  in  any  other  book. 


PRACTICE  OF  MEDICINE. 

Roberts'  Practice  of  Medicine.      Eighth  Edition.     Re- 
vised, Enlarged  and  Illustrated.  1890. 

A   HANDBOOK    OF    THE    THEORY    AND    PRACTICE    OF    MEDICINE.        By     FREDERICK    T. 

Roberts,  m.d.,  b.Sc,  f.r  c.P.,  Professor  of  Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics,  and 

of  Clinical  Medicine,  at  University  College  Hospital,  London;  Physician  to  Bromp- 
ton  Hospital  for  Consumption  and  Diseases  of  the  Chest,  etc.  Eighth  Edition. 
Revised  and  Enlarged.     51  Illustrations.      1059  pages.     Octavo. 

Handsome  Cloth,  $5.50;  Full  Sheep,  Raised  Bands,  #6.50 

"  The  various  subjects  have  been  treated  in  a  complete  and  masterly  manner.  .  .  .  We  heartily 
commend  this  handbook,  not  only  to  gentlemen  preparing  for  the  medical  profession,  but  to  those  who  may 
have  finished  their  professional  education;  as  this  work  contains,  in  a  brief  and  concise  shape,  all  that  the 
busy  general  practitioner  needs  to  know  to  enable  him  to  carry  on  his  practice  with  comfort  to  himself  and 
with  advantage  to  his  patients." — British  Medical  Journal. 

"  It  is  unsurpassed  by  any  work  that  has  fallen  into  our  hands  as  a  compendium  for  students." —  The  Clinic. 

"We  particularly  recommend  it  to  students  about  to  enter  upon  the  practice  of  their  profession." — St. 
Louis  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal. 

"  If  there  is  a  book  in  the  whole  of  medical  literature  in  which  so  much  is  said  in  so  few  words,  it  has 
never  come  within  our  reach." — Chicago  Medical  Journal. 

"  The  regularity  with  which  fresh  editions  of  this  admirable  text-book  make  their  appearance,  serves  to 
show  that  it  continues  to  maintain  its  favored  position  with  the  student,  who  finds  it  a  safe  and  reliable  guide. 
Apart  from  the  clearness  of  style  and  its  thoroughly  practical  character,  a  great  feature  of  Dr.  Roberts'  work 
is  the  systematic  method  with  which  each  subject  is  treated.  The  value  of  this  kind  of  instruction  is  high,  as 
it  enables  the  student  to  marshal  his  ideas  in  an  orderly  manner,  and  to  assign  to  each  part  its  special 
importance.  The  author  has  not  been  unmindful  of  the  necessity  of  keeping  his  book  '  up  to  date,'  and  he 
has  evidently  bestowed  much  pains  on  its  revision.  It  is  enough  to  say  that  it  fully  merits  its  popularity." — 
The  Lancet,  London,  February  7th,  1891. 

"  The  arrangement  of  the  subject  is  admirable,  each  disease  is  very  fully  considered  in  elegant  phraseology 
without  any  undue  verbosity,  and  the  matter  is  presented  in  a  manner  which  is  easily  grasped  and  retained  in 
the  memory.  It  is  quite  unnecessary  to  refer  further  to  the  pages  of  this  valuable  and  reliable  text-book.  It 
will  be  found  a  trustworthy  guide  both  by  students  and  practitioners,  and  the  latter  will  find  much  more  infor- 
mation as  to  treatment,  than  is  usually  recorded  in  such  works." — Liverpool  Medico- Chir.  Journal,  Jan.,  1891. 

Hughes'  Compend  of  the  Practice  of  Medicine.     4th 
Enlarged  Edition.  1890. 

A    COMPEND    OF   THE    PRACTICE    OF    MEDICINE.        By    DANIEL   E.    HUGHES,    M.D.,    late 

Demonstrator  of  Clinical  Medicine  at  Jefferson  Medical  College,  Philadelphia;  now 
Physician-in-Chief,  Philadelphia  Hospital      In  two  parts. 

Part  I. — Continued,  Eruptive  and  Periodical  Fevers,  Diseases  of  the  Stomach,  Intes- 
tines, Peritoneum,  Biliary  Passages,  Liver,  Kidneys,  etc.,  and  General  Diseases,  etc. 

Part  II. — Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System,  Circulatory  System  and  Nervous 
System;  Diseases  of  the  Blood,  etc.       Price  of  each  Part,  strongly  bound  in  cloth,  $1.00 

Interleaved  for  the  addition  of  notes,     1.25 

*%* These  books  area  complete  set  of  notes  upon  the  practice  of  medicine.  The 
synonyms,  definition,  causes,  symptoms,  pathology,  prognosis,  diagnosis,  treatment,  etc., 
of  each  disease  being  given.  The  treatment  is  especially  full  and  a  number  of  valuable 
prescriptions  have  been  incorporated.  Reference  has  been  made  to  the  latest  writings 
and  teachings  of  Drs.  Flint,  Roberts,  Loomis,  Bartholow,  DaCosta,  etc.  Dr.  Hughes' 
long  experience  as  demonstrator  of  clinical  medicine  under  the  last  named  famous  pro- 
fessors gave  him  unrivaled  opportunities  for  the  preparation  of  a  book  of  this  character. 

Physicians'  Edition.     Fourth  Edition.     Same  as  above,  but  in  one  volume, 
and  including  a  section  on  Skin  Diseases  and  a  very  complete  index. 

Full  Morocco,  Gilt  Edges,  $2.50 

"  The  best  condensation  of  the  essentials  of  Practice  I  have  yet  seen.  ...  It  will  be  an  admirable 
review  book  for  students  after  a  solid  course  of  study,  and  it  will  be  scarcely  less  useful  to  the  busy  practi- 
tioner as  a  ready  means  of  refreshing  his  memory." — ('.  A.  Lindsley,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Theory  and  Prac- 
tice of  Medicine,  Yale  College,  New  Haven. 


NEW  AND  REVISED  EDITIONS. 

PQUIZ-COMPENDS.P 

A  SERIES  OF  PRACTICAL  MANUALS  FOR  THE  PHYSICIAN  AND  STUDENT. 

Compiled  in  accordance  with  the  latest  teachings  of  prominent  lecturers 
and  the  most  popular  Text-books. 

Bound  in  Cloth,  each  $1.00.     Interleaved,  for  the  Addition  of  Notes,  $1.25. 

They  form  a  most  complete,  practical  and  exhaustive  set  of  manuals,  containing  information  nowhere  else 
collected  in  such  a  practical  shape.  Thoroughly  up  to  the  times  in  every  respect,  containing  many  new  pre- 
scriptions and  formulae,  and  over  300  illustrations,  many  of  which  have  been  drawn  and  engraved  specially  for 
this  series.  The  authors  have  had  large  experience  as  quiz-masters  and  attaches  of  colleges,  with  exceptional 
opportunities  for  noting  the  most  recent  advances  and  methods.  The  arrangement  of  the  subjects,  illustrations, 
types,  etc.,  are  all  of  the  most  approved  form.  They  are  constantly  being  revised,  so  as  to  include  the  latest 
and  best  teachings,  and  can  be  used  by  students  of  any  college  of  medicine,  dentistry  and  pharmacy. 

No.  1.  Human  Anatomy.  Fifth  Edition  (1891),  including  Visceral  Anatomy,  formerly  pub- 
lished separately.  16  Lithograph  Plates,  Tables,  and  117  Illustrations.  By  Samuel  C).  L. 
Pottkr.  m.a.,  m.d.,  late  A.  A.  Surgeon,  U.  S.  Army.  Professor  of  Practice,  Cooper  Med.  College, 
San  Francisco. 

Nos.  2  and  3.  Practice  of  Medicine.  Fourth  Edition,  Enlarged  (1890).  By  Daniel  E.  Hughes, 
mil,  late  Demonstrator  of  Clinical  Medicine  in  Jefferson  Med.  College,  Phila. ;  Physician-in  Chief,  Phila- 
delphia Hospital.     In  two  parts. 

Part  I. — Continued,  Eruptive  and  Periodical  Fevers,  Diseases  of  the  Stomach,  Intestines,  Peritoneum,  Biliary  Passages, 
Liver,  Kidneys,  etc.  (including  Tests  for  Urine),  General  Diseases,  etc. 

Part  U.  — Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System  (including  Physical  Diagnosis),  Circulatory  System  and  Nervous  System; 
Diseases  of  the  Blood,  etc. 

*,*  These  little  books  can  be  regarded  as  a  full  set  of  notes  upon  the  Practice  of  Medicine,  containing  the  Synonyms, 
Definitions,  Causes,  Symptoms,  Prognosis,  Diagnosis,  Treatment,  etc.,  of  each  disease,  and  including  a  number  of  prescrip- 
tions hitherto  unpublished. 

No.  4.  Physiology,  including  Embryology.  Sixth  Edition  ( 1 89 1 ) .  By  Albert  P.  Brubaker,  m.d., 
Prof,  of  Physiology,  Penn'a  College  of  Dental  Surgery;  Demonstrator  of  Physiology  in  Jefferson  lied. 
College,  Phila.     Revised,  Enlarged  and  Illustrated.  In  Press. 

No.  5.  Obstetrics.  Illustrated.  Fourth  Edition  (1889).  For  Physicians  and  Students.  By  Henry 
0.  Landis,  m.d.,  Piof.  of  Obstetrics  and  Diseases  of  Women,  in  Starling  Medical  College,  Columbus. 
Revised  Edition.      New  Illustrations. 

No.  6.  Materia  Medica,  Therapeutics  and  Prescription  Writing.  Fifth  Revised  Edition  (1S91). 
With  especial  Reference  to  the  Physiological  Action  of  Drugs,  and  a  complete  article  on  Prescription 
Writing.  Based  on  the  Last  Revision  (Sixth)  of  the  U.  S.  Pharmacopoeia,  and  including  many  unofficinal 
remedies.  By  Samuel  O.  L.  Potter,  m.a.,  m.d.,  late  A.  A.  Surg.  U.  S.  Army;  Prof,  of  Practice, 
Cooper  Med.  College,  San  Francisco.     5th  Edition.     Improved  and  Enlarged. 

No.  7.  Gynaecology.  (1891.)  A  Compend  of  Diseases  of  Women.  By  Henry  Morris,  m.d.,  Demon- 
strator of  Obstetrics,  Jeflerson  Medical  College,  Philadelphia.     Many  Illustrations. 

No.  8.  Diseases  of  the  Eye  and  Refraction.  Second  Edition  (1888).  Including  Treatment  and 
Surgery.  By  L.  Webster  Fox,  m.d.,  Chief  Clinical  Assistant  Opthalmological  Dept.,  Jefferson  Medical 
College,  etc.,  and  Geo.  M.  GOULD,  m  D.     71  Illustrations,  39  Formula'. 

No.  9.  Surgery,  Minor  Surgery  and  Bandaging.  Illustrated.  Fourth  Edition  (1890) .  Including 
Fracture^,  Wounds,  Dislocations,  Sprains,  Amputations  and  other  operations ;  Inflammation.  Suppuration, 
Ulcers,  Syphilis,  Tumors,  Shock,  etc.  Diseases  of  the  Spine,  Ear,  Bladder,  Testicles,  Anus,  and  other 
Surgic.i!  Diseases.  By  Orvili.e  HORWITZ,  a.m.,  m.d.,  Demonstrator  of  Surgery,  Jeffeison  Medical 
College.     84  Formul.x  and  136  Illustrations. 

No.  10.     Medical  Chemistry.     Third  Edition  (1890).    Inorganic  and  Organic,  including  Urine  Analysis 
Medical  and  Dental  Students.     By  Henry  Lf.efmann,  m  d..  Prof,  of  Chemistry  in  I'cinfa  College 
of  Dental  Surgery,  Phila.      Third  Edition.     Revised  and  Enlarged. 

No.  n.  Pharmacy.  Third  Edition  (iXqo).  Baaed  upon M  Remington's  Text-Book  of  Pharmacy."  By 
1  E  STEWART,  m  d  .,  PH.O.,  Professor  of  Pharmacy,  Powers  College  of  Pharmacy;  late  Quit-Master  at 
Philadelphia  College  of  Pharmacy.      Third  Edition.      Revised. 

No.  12.    Veterinary  Anatomy  and  Physiology.     Illustrated.    (1S90.)    By  Wm.  R.  I'.ai  1  ■ 
of  Equine  Anatomy,  New  York  College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons,  etc.     29  Illustrations. 

No.  13.     Dental  Pathology  and  Dental  Medicine.     (1N00  )    Containing  all  the  moat  noteworthy  points 
o|    int. ti •  t   to  the   Dental   Student.      By  GlO,   W    WaMUKH,  dps,  Clinical   Chief,  Penn'a  CoUtj 
Dental  Surgery,  Philadelphia,     Illns. 

No.  14.  Diseases  of  Children.  (18QO.)  By  Martin  I'  H\mni\  PlofMOT  of  Diseases  of  Children, 
Chi.  J  College.    With  Colored  Plate. 

gtif"  These  books  aie  constantly  revised  to  keep  up  with  the  latest  teachings  and  discoveries. 


From  The  SOUTHERN  Clinic. — "  //'•  kno:c  of  no  scries  of  books  issued  by  any  house  M 
fully  meets  OUT  approval  as  these  t  Quij  Compcnds  f      They  arc  wc,'.'  .:■  excise, 

and  are  really  the  best  line  of  text-books  that  could  be  found  for  either  stud  U  titioner." 


Potter.      A   Compend    of  Anatomy.       Fifth   Edition. 
16  Lithograph  Plates.      117  other  Illus.         1891. 

including  the  viscera.  {Based  on  Gray.)  By  Saml.  0.  L.  Potter,  m.a,,  m.d., 
late  A.  A.  Surg.  U.  S.  Army;  Professor  of  the  Practice  of  Medicine,  Cooper  Medical 
College,  San  Francisco.  Revised  and  Enlarged.  i2mo.  Being  No.  I  ?  Quiz- 
Compend  ?  Series.     Seepage  29.  Strongly  bound  in  cloth,  $1.00 

Interleaved,  for  the  addition  of  notes,    1.25 

\*  An  Appendix  has  been  added  to  this  edition,  containing  16  Lithographic  Plates  of  the  Arterial  and 
Nervous  Systems,  with  explanatory  tables  that  will  be  found  exceedingly  useful  and  practical.  We  would 
call  special  attention  to  these  tables,  as  being  entirely  original  in  design  and  arrangement,  giving  graphic 
views  of  the  most  difficult  part  of  Human  Anatomy,  and  including  anastomoses  (the  arteries)  and  distri- 
bution (the  arteries  and  nerves) ;  a  thing  never  before  shown  completely  in  tabular  form.  The  different  types 
are  so  arranged  as  to  grade  the  branches  according  to  relative  importance,  and  by  the  systematic  and  ingenious 
use  of  brackets  with  various  types,  the  tables  are  veritable  pictures  themselves  of  their  objects. 

Dr.  Potter's  power  of  condensation  and  arrangement,  have  never  been  displayed  to  such  advantage  as  in 
these  tables,  which  must  take  their  proper  place  as  the  best  of  all  attempts  of  the  kind,  even  in  the  restricted 
space  of  pages  the  size  of  which  was  previously  determined,  and  to  which  the  tables  had  to  conform. 

The  plates  are  equally  original,  having  been  made  from  new  drawings  by  Dr.  Potter's  own  hand ;  they 
are  graphic  delineations,  and  being  diagrammatic,  do  not  represent  the  exact  forms  or  proportions  of  the  parts 
thus  shown.  If  colored  by  hand,  by  the  student,  as  may  be  done  with  very  little  trouble,  their  value  will  be 
greatly  increased. 

"  In  the  particular  line  to  which  it  belongs,  and  as  one  of  the  pioneers,  this  work  of  the  indefatigable  Dr. 
Potter  stands  in  the  list  of  the  very  best.  This  is  particularly  conspicuous  in  view  of  the  many  failures  to 
render  the  subject  of  anatomy  attractive  when  presented  in  compends." — American  Practitioner  and  News, 
January,  1 89 1. 

"This  is  ? Quiz-Compend  No.  1,  based  on  Gray  principally,  and  is  a  book  that  to  a  student  is  almost  a 
necessity,  and  to  the  practicing  physician  a  great  aid  as  a  ready  reference  work,  enabling  him,  at  almost  a 
glance,  to  keep  in  mind  a  great  many  valuable  points  in  anatomy  that  otherwise  he  would  forget." — The  Cin- 
cinnati Medical  Journal,  Febiitary  ijth,  i8qi. 

"  Of  all  the  studies  in  a  medical  course,  anatomy  is  the  most  important.  To  wade  through  a  '  Gray,'  for 
review,  is  very  irksome,  and  by  having  an  Anatomy  in  an  epitomized  form  and  thoroughly  reliable,  both  time 
and  labor  will  be  saved.  Dr.  Potter  has  thus  conferred  a  boon  on  both  the  student  and  practitioner  alike,  by 
publishing  his  Compend  of  Anatomy.  The  tables  and  plates  of  the  nerves  and  arteries  are  excellent ;  these 
constitute  the  Appendix,  and  by  their  aid  one  can  review  this  important  part  of  the  work  in  a  short  space  of 
time." — Canada  Lancet,  Toronto,  February,  i8qi. 


I89O. 


Robinson.      The    Latin    Grammar   of  Pharmacy    and 
Medicine. 

By  H.  D.  Robinson,  ph.d.,  Professor  of  Latin  Language  and  Literature,  University 
of  Kansas,  Lawrence.  With  an  Introduction  by  L.  E.  Sayre,  ph.g.,  Professor  of 
Pharmacy,  and  Dean  of  the  Dept.  of  Pharmacy,  in  the  University  of  Kansas.  i2mo. 
275  Pages.  Cloth,  $2.00 

"It  is  a  work  that  meets  with  my  hearty  approval.  There  is  great  need  of  just  such  a  book  in  our 
American  schools  of  pharmacy  and  medicine." — E.  S.  Bastin,  Professor  of  Botany,  Dept.  of  Pharmacy, 
Northwestern  University,  Chicago. 

"  The  object  of  this  useful  book  is  a  very  laudable  one,  namely,  to  improve,  if  possible,  the  Latin  used  by 
both  physicians  and  druggists,  chiefly  in  the  prescribing  of  drugs.  While  it  is  true  that  many  of  the  profession 
find  it  unnecessary  to  remember  the  genitive  endings  of  words  used  in  medicine,  because  of  the  customary 
abbreviations  in  prescribing-writing,  there  are  lathers  who  frequently  desire  .to  write  their  directions  to  the 
druggist  in  Latin,  in  order  that  the  patient  may  not  learn  of  facts  about  which  it  is  often  necessary  for  him  to 
remain  in  ignorance.  We  hope  that  the  book  will  prove  a  success,  and  by  its  general  employment  in  both 
pharmaceutical  and  medical  schools,  improve  the  knowledge  of  Latin  in  both  professions." — Ike  Medical 
News,  Philadelphia,  January  loth,  1891. 

"  The  plan  of  the  book  is  excellent,  the  field  new,  as  it  fills  a  long-felt  want.  All  medical  students 
should  have  it,  both  the  collegian,  as  it  will  give  a  practical  turn  to  his  knowledge  of  Latin,  and  the  non- 
graduate,  as  it  will  give  him  a  direct  and  useful  acquaintance  with  that  language.  The  country  doctor  who 
has  not  had  the  advantages  of  the  younger  men  will  find  it  a  great  help  in  overcoming  this  defect,  and  may 
speedily  acquire  a  familiarity  with  this  language  that  will  surprise  his  classical  confrere.'''' — Southern  Cal. 
Practitioner,  December,  1890. 


NURSING,  MASSAGE,  ETC. 

Ostrom.       Massage  and  the   Original    Swedish   Move- 
ments.     Illustrated.      Second  Edition.  1891. 

AND     THEIR    APPLICATION    TO    VARIOUS 

diseases  of  the  body.  A  Manual  for 
Students,  Nurses,  and  Physicians.  By 
KuRRE  VY.  Ostrom,  from  the  Royal 
University  of  Upsala,  Sweden ;  In- 
structor in  Massage  and  Swedish  Move- 
ments in  the  Hospital  of  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  and  in  the  Philadel- 
phia Polyclinic  and  College  for  Gradu- 
ates in  Medicine,  etc.  Illustrated  by  87 
explanatory  Wood  Engravings,  drawn 
specially  for  this  purpose.  i2mo.  Sec- 
ond Edition.  Cloth,  $1.00 

"This  l>ook,  which  is  well  written  and  carefully  illustrated,  will  be  of  service  both  to  physicians  and 
nurses  as  well  as  to  manipulators.     Mr.  Ostrom,  who  came  to  this  country  from  Sweden,  lias  proven  b 
a  capable  teacher   as    well   as   a   good   masseur,  his   instructions   being   careful,  accurate,  and  complete." — 
L'niverAty  Medical  Magazine,  Philadelphia^  March,  iSqo. 

Parvin.      Obstetric  Nursing.  1889. 

LECTURES  DELIVERED   AT  THE    TRAINING    SCHOOL    FOR    NURSES    OF    THE    PHILADELPHIA 

HOSPITAL.  By  Theophilus  Parvin,  m.d.,  Professor  of  Obstetrics  and  Diseases  of 
Women  and  Children  in  the  Jefferson  Medical  College ;  Obstetrician  to  the  Phila- 
delphia Hospital.     Revised  and  Enlarged,     izrao.  th,  %  .7^ 

Humphrey.    A  Manual  for  Nurses.    4th  Edition     1891. 

iM  luding  ceneral  anatomy  and  physiology,  Management  of  the  Sick-Room, 

By  ;  Humphrey,  m.d.,m.r.c.s.,  Ass't  Physician  to,  and  Lecturer  at, 

bro  >k's  Hospital,  Cambridge,  England,      i  :mo.     79  Illustrations. 

"  'lint  .1  work  <>f  such  a  character  should  1  at  all  is  in  itself  :i  significant  indication 

of  the  high  standard  to  which  the  art  of  nursing  has  risen  in  recent  years,  and  i  I  "t"  the 

estimation  in  which  really  goo  1  nursing  is  held  alike  by  the  public  and  by  m  dical  n  ie  intelligent 

and  often  well  educated  women  who  now  take  up  tmr-iiiL;  either  as  an  occupation  or  a>  a  prof  ssion,  some 
ining  in  the  elements  of  anatomy  and  physiology  is  very  generally  lary  by 

all  hospital  authorities.     .    .     ." — The  Practition  il,  i8go. 

Fullerton.      Obstetrical  Nursing.      Illustrated.       1891. 

A  HANDBOOK  FOR  NURSES,  STUD  OTHERS.     By  A*NNA  M.    FULLERTON,   M.D., 

Demonstrator  of  Obstetrics  in  the  Women's  Medical  College  j   Physician  in  ch 
df,  and  Obstetrician  and  Gynaecologist  to,  the  Woman's  Hospital,  Philadelphia,  etc. 
34  Illustratii  ral  of  which  are  original.    Second  Edition,  Revised  and  I'.nla; 

tamo.  es. 

wir    AUTHOR. 

Nursing     in     Abdominal     Surgery     and     Diseases     of 
Women.  1891. 

I  \K  COURSE  Of  IN  I'HK    TRAIN   N  till 

woman'  ll,  Philadelphia.    70  Illustrations,   tamo.    a<  I     th,  $1.50 


OBSTETRICS— GYNECOLOGY. 

Winckel's    Text-Book    of    Obstetrics.       With    many 
Original   Illustrations. 

INCLUDING     THE     PATHOLOGY     AND     THERAPEUTICS    OF    THE     PUERPERAL     STATE.       By 

Dr.  F.  Winckel,  Professor  of  Gynecology  and  Director  of  the  Royal  Hospital  for 
Women  in  Munich.  Authorized  Translation,  by  J.  Clifton  Edgar,  m.d.,  Adjunct 
Prof,  of  Obstetrics,  Medical  Depart.,  University  of  the  City  of  New  York.  192  hand- 
some illustrations, the  majority  of  which  are  original  with  this  work.  927  pages.   8vo. 

Cloth,  $6.00;  Sheep,  $7.00 

"  His  practical  experience  and  laborious  researches  in  the  literature  of  the  subject  have  qualified  him  to 
place  before  the  profession  a  book  which  is  certainly  of  great  value,  and  we  desire  to  compliment  Dr.  Edgar 
upon  his  foresight  and  admirable  work  in  the  preparation  of  the  American  translation.  One  of  the  useful 
things  about  the  work  is  that  bibliographies  accompany  the  articles  upon  each  special  subject,  while  the  illus- 
trations seem  to  us  to  be  almost  entirely  original,  which  is  but  natural  when  we  consider  the  enormous  amount 
of  material  from  which  the  author  may  obtain  figures.  The  work  of  the  American  publisher  has  been  well 
carried  out,  as  it  is  usual  under  the  circumstances,  and  we  venture  to  say  the  translation  is  put  before  the  pro- 
fession of  this  country  in  much  better  form  than  the  German  publishers  placed  the  original  before  the  physi- 
cians of  the  Fatherland." — Medical  News,  Philadelphia. 

"  These  additions  make  the  perusal  of  the  work  a  labor  of  pleasure,  besides  adding  greatly  to  its  value. 
One  lays  down  the  book  with  a  heightened  admiration  for  the  author's  learning,  as  well  as  a  deep  respect  for 
his  careful  and  conservative  teaching." — American  Journal  of  Obstetrics,  Nezv  York. 

"  In  this  hasty  manner  we  have  only  sought  to  call  attention  to  the  salient  points  of  this  admirable  work, 
which,  though  intended  and  especially  adapted  to  the  student,  nevertheless  will  well  repay  a  careful  perusal  by 
all  who  aspire  to  practice  obstetrics  according  to  the  most  improved  modern  methods.  We  would  like  to  see 
this  text-book  used  in  this  country,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  clear  and  concise,  that  it  gives  special  prominence 
to  pathology,  and  that  every  page  bears  evidence  of  that  thoroughness  and  sound  conservatism  which  makes 
its  distinguished  author  unequaled  as  a  teacher  of  obstetrics." — Medical  Record. 

Winckel.      Diseases  of  Women.      By  Parvin.      Second 
Edition,  Enlarged. 

including  diseases  of  the  bladder  and  urethra.  By  Dr.  F.  Winckel, Professor 
of  Gynaecology  and  Director  of  the  Royal  University  Clinic  for  Women  in  Munich. 
Authorized  Translation.  Edited  by  Theophilus  Parvin,  m.d.,  Professor  of  Obstet- 
rics and  Diseases  of  Women  and  Children  in  Jefferson  Medical  College,  Philadelphia. 
Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.  152  Engravings  on  Wood.  i2mo.  No.  2, 
New  Series  of  Manuals.      766  pages.  Cloth,  $3.00;   Leather,  $3.50 

"  The  popularity  of  the  work  is  shown  by  the  rapidity  with  which  the  first  edition  was  exhausted.  There 
is,  perhaps,  no  more  scholarly  or  influential  authority  on  gynaecological  subjects  among  our  German  confreres 
than  Winckel,  and  this  fact,  added  to  the  respect  and  esteem  in  which  his  American  editor  is  universally  held, 
may  serve  to  explain  the  early  demand  for  a  second  edition  in  advance  of  a  second  German  edition. 
A  novel  feature  is  furnished  by  the  chapters  on  diseases  of  the  mammary  gland.  They  are  not  generally  dis- 
cussed in  works  of  this  character,  but  we  have  always  been  of  the  opinion  that  their  consideration  was  quite 
as  appropriate  as  that  of  any  other  portion  of  the  genital  apparatus,  of  which  they  form  an  essential  element." 
—  The  American  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  Philadelphia. 

"  It  is  nearly  three  years  since  we  had  the  pleasure  of  reviewing  the  English  translation  of  Professor 
Winckel's  '  Diseases  of  Women.'  The  favorable  comments  we  then  made  we  have  now  but  to  endorse  in 
connection  with  the  second  edition  of  this  excellent,  lucidly  written  gynaecological  work.  Dr.  Theophilus 
Parvin  has  most  thoroughly  revised  the  former  issue,  so  that  the  reader  meets  with  only  the  latest  and  most, 
matured  opinions  on  the  various  debatable  topics.  We  should  like  again  to  direct  the  attention  of  those  inter- 
ested in  gynaecological  literature  to  the  subjects  on  pelvic  neoplasms  and  diseases  of  the  female  urethra  and 
bladder.  The  work  is  profusely  illustrated,  and  we  feel  confident  that  those  of  our  readers  who  accord  it 
careful  study  will  derive  much  pleasure  and  instruction  from  its  pages." — The  Practitioner,  London. 


